PRODUCTIVE 
AGRICULTURE 




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PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS 
ATLANTA ■ SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY ■ CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



BY 



JOHN H. GEHRS, B.S., M.S. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF AGRICULTURE OF THE WARRENSBURG 

STATE NORMAL, WARRENSBURG, MO. ; JOINT AUTHOR 

GEHRS AND JAMES' '' ONE HUNDRED EXERCISES 

IN AGRICULTURE " 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1917 

All rights reserved 






Copyright, 1917, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 

Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1917. 




m 10 1917 



Nortooot) ^^ttjsa 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 






PREFACE 

This book is the outgrowth of the author's feeHng that there 
is a need and a demand for a book that will standardize seventh 
and eighth grade agriculture. It is the author's belief that 
children in the seventh and eighth grades in the rural schools are 
as well if not better prepared to do superior work in agriculture 
than are freshmen in many of our town schools. The town 
pupil knows little about agriculture. The experience of the 
country boy or girl is rich in the practical affairs of agriculture. 

The Table of Contents indicates that the subject matter 
treated in this book fits closely the agricultural interests of the 
North Central States. The arrangement of the chapters follows 
as closely as possible the farmer's seasonal occupations. But 
since the seasonal sequence varies, the chapters may be studied 
in any order desired. The topics treated cover the demands of 
the courses of study of the North Central States. 

Such topics as the origin, history, and importance of farm 
crops and animals are about agriculture ; but such topics as how 
to produce larger yields, use of more prolific varieties, the use of 
high-grade or pure-bred stock, how to feed well and economically, 
how to improve the soil, how to combat enemies, and how to 
choose, plan, and manage a farm, are topics that deal with mak- 
ing our agriculture more productive. This is not primarily a 
book ABOUT agriculture; but one on "Productive Agriculture." 

Contrary to the popular opinion, our crop yields per acre in 
the United States are not decreasing, but increasing. This is 



VI 



PREFACE 



shown in the following table based upon the United States Year- 
books of Agriculture : 

Increase in Yield in Farm Crops of the United States 
Average Yield per Acre 





. Period 1890-1899, 


Period 1906-1915, 


Percentage 




Bushels 


Bushels 


Increase 


Barley 


23.2 


25.6 


10.3 


Corn 


24.1 


28.6 


10.4 


Wheat 


13-2 


14. Q 


12.8 


Oats 


26.1 


30.2 


15-3 


Rye 


14.0 


16.4 


17. 1 


Potatoes .... 


70.4 


974 


38.2 



The average acreage yields of the leading crops of the United 
States for the period 1906-1915 have been greater than for any 
other equal period in American agriculture. Unless this book 
helps to increase the acreage yields, improve stock, make for 
better and more fruit, and promote better farm management, 
it will have failed of the purpose for which it has been written. 

Since the Extension Departments of the Agricultural Colleges 
are devoting so much time to organizing and directing club and 
home project work, this topic is wholly omitted from the dis- 
cussions. Some club work can be done with profit. For infor- 
mation regarding the organizing of clubs, write the Extension 
Department of your State Agricultural College. These Exten- 
sion workers are specialists, and can give the best information 
obtainable on club work. 

Laboratory Exercises are provided at the close of each chap- 
ter. These exercises illustrate and make clearer the principles 
brought out in the text. They can be done with a small amount 
of equipment, and will help to make the work in agriculture 



PREFACE vii 

more concrete. Laboratory work makes the subject more 
interesting, educative, aiid practical. 

A small amount of suggested correlation with other subjects, 
especially language and arithmetic, is found in the Laboratory 
Exercises. When other subjects are correlated with agriculture, 
agriculture should be the basis for correlation. Correlation in 
which nine-tenths of the time is devoted to subjects other than 
agriculture destroys the vital influence that agriculture should 
have in every rural community. 

The limitations due to the size of this volume, and the time of 
the pupils, compel the omission of many subjects that would be 
interesting and profitable. Special treatises in the form of bulle- 
tins from your State Experiment Station and the United States 
Department of Agriculture should be consulted. Many ques- 
tions of local interest may thus be studied. Lists giving the avail- 
able bulletins of your State Station and the United States 
Department of Agriculture should be sent for. 

Grateful acknowledgments are due the following agricultural 
specialists : C. B. Hutchison, formerly teacher of Farm Crops, 
University of Missouri, and now a student at Cornell University, 
for reading the section on Farm Crops ; E. A. Trowbridge, Pro- 
fessor of Animal Husbandry, University of Missouri, for reading 
the section on Farm Animals ; G. H. Benkendorf, Professor of 
Dairying, University of Wisconsin for reading the section on 
Dairying ; C. T. Patterson, Director of the Missouri Poultry 
Experiment Station, Mountain Grove, Missouri, for reading the 
chapter on Poultry ; A. R. Whitson, in charge of the Soils De- 
partment of the University of Wisconsin, for reading the section 
on Soils ; Dr. J. C. Whitten, Professor of Horticulture, Univer- 
sity of Missouri, for reading the section on Horticulture ; and 
G. W. Gehrand, Professor of Animal Husbandry, University of 
Minnesota, for reading the section on Farm Management ; and, 



viii PREFACE 

also, W. W. Parker, Associate Professor in English in the War- 
rensburg State Normal School, for reading the manuscript. To 
these specialists is due, in a large measure, whatever merit this 
book may have. 

Acknowledgments are due also to Dr. E. L. Hendricks, Presi- 
dent of the Warrensburg State Normal School ; A. E. David- 
son, Teacher of Agriculture of the Warrensburg State Normal 
School; Prof. T. J. Walker, Rural School Inspector; and R. H. 
Boston, County Superintendent of Schools of Johnson County, 
Missouri, for valuable suggestions on the entire book. 

To all of these, and to those who have assisted the author in 
testing the workability of most of the subject matter and exer- 
cises of this text, the author is profoundly grateful. 

JOHN H. GEHRS. 

Warrensburg State Normal School, 

Warrensburg, Missouri, 

February 2, 1917. 



APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT^ 



Apparatus and equipment every school should have, and their 
approximate cost, are given below. Other equipment may be 
supplied when needed. 




balances, — weighing to 
grams — $6.65 



Five-foot measur- 
ing tape 





Babcock tester (and necessary Six percolators, — each $.27 
glassware and chemicals) — $10.00 

1 This apparatus may be had from the following : The Central Scientific Com- 
pany, 412-420 Orleans St., Chicago, lUinois, and W. M. Welsh Scientific Company, 
1516 Orleans St., Chicago, Illinois. 

ix 



APPARATUS AND EQUIPMENT 




Scales, — weighing to ounces One-half dozen loo c.c. 

— $1.65 graduates, — each $.56 

One dozen pint glass jars $ .60 

One dozen paper plates .10 

Tall bottles with bottoms out. 

Six one-gallon buckets. 

Blue litmus paper (had at drug stores). 

Red litmus paper (had at drug stores). 

Samples of commercial fertilizers (obtained from packing 
houses or fertilizer companies). 

Soil auger. 

Standard of Perfection, — published by the American Poultry 
Association, Mansfield, Ohio $2.00 



CONTENTS 



I. F 



ARM CROPS 



CHAPTER 
I. 


Wheat 


II. 


Corn . 


III. 


Oats . 


IV. 


The Clovers 


V. 


Soybeans 


VI. 


COWPEAS 


VII. 


Alfalfa 


VIII. 


Pastures 



PAGE 
I 

24 

59 

72 
82 
88 

93 

102 



II. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 

IX. Feeds and Feeding 107 

X. The Horse 114 

XI. Beef Cattle 144 

XII. Dairying 162 

XIII. Swine Production 199 

XIV. Sheep 215 

XV. Poultry 227 

III. SOILS 

XVI. Nature of Soils 263 

XVII. Structure of Soils 271 

XVIII. The Soil Water Supply 275 



xu 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER 

XIX. Plant Foods . 

XX. Losses of Plant Foods . 

XXI. Improvement or Soils . 

XXII. Barnyard Manure . 

XXIII. Commercial Fertilizers 



PAGE 
284 

291 

298 



IV. HORTICULTURE 

XXIV. Plant Propagation 329 

XXV. Vegetable Gardening 345 

XXVI. Fruit Growing 360 

XXVII. The Farmer's Wood Lot 381 

V. FARM MANAGEMENT 

XXVIII. Choosing a Farm 385 

XXIX. Planning a Farm 394 

XXX. Farm Bookkeeping 400 

XXXI. Farm Labor 407 

XXXII. Animal Husbandry 418 

Bibliography 429 

IlSTDEX 431 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



CHAPTER I 



WHEAT 

Importance of the Wheat Crop. — The wheat crop of the 
world is the most important crop grown. Wheat is used more 
extensively by civilized people as a food than any other crop. 
In money value wheat ranks next to corn among the farm crops 
of the United States. The production of wheat of the grand 
divisions recently for a period of five years was as follows : ^ 

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 



EUROPE 


1,951,000,000 












■ 51.4% 


N.AM. 
ASIA 


1,046,000,000 
444,000,000 




■ 11.7% 


^m^m 2/ 


.6% 






S.AM. 


183,000,000 


■■■4.8% 












OCEANIA 


86,000,000 


m 2.2% 












AFRICA 


80.000 000 


■ 2.1% 













Graph i. Wheat production in bushels. 

From this graph it may be seen that Europe produces more 
than half of the world's wheat crop. In fact, European Russia 
produces almost as much wheat as North America. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this Chapter are : 

A pint each of hard and soft wheat flour, several pint samples of threshed 
wheat, and a dozen paper (preferable) or porcelain plates. 

1 United States Yearbooks of Agriculture, igii-1915. 
B I 



2 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

In the United States the weight of the wheat crop ranks second, 
corn being first. The average acreage yield of wheat in the 
United States for a recent period of ten years was fifteen 
bushels.^ The average price per bushel of wheat over this 
decade was nearly 87 cents (86.8).^ At this rate the value of our 
wheat crop for 191 5 was $930,302,000. Wheat is the source of 
a large supply of our daily food products. (See Exercise i.) 

History of Wheat. — Just when wheat was first grown is not 
known. However, it may be safely stated that it was grown a 
long time before history was recorded. The Chinese raised 
wheat about 3000 B.C. The Egyptians, Hebrews, and the people 
of Switzerland produced wheat in prehistoric times. Wheat is 
mentioned in the first book of the Bible, and the early writings 
of various ancient peoples abound in references to wheat. 

Wheat was not grown in America until after the discovery by 
Columbus. The first colonists introduced wheat into America, 
and about 1540 sowed the first seed on American soil. The 
colonists were largely unsuccessful in their attempts at growing 
wheat in New England. The Middle Atlantic colonists suc- 
ceeded better, and exported a great deal of wheat and flour in 
colonial times. 

All laboratory work should be neatly, carefully, and systematically re- 
corded in a well-kept notebook. It may be desirable to write up each 
exercise in the usual way, namely, the object of the exercise, the materials 
used, the procedure or operation, and the conclusion. A loose-leaf note- 
book 8 X io| inches will be found most satisfactory. Notebooks should be 
uniform in size. 

Lists of Free Bulletins from your Agricultural College and the United 
States Department of Agriculture should be written for, and the Bulletins 
received should be a part of the permanent school library. The Bulletins 
should be classified and several Bulletins on the same topic bound together 
by punching holes in the proper place, and tying. 

1 1906-1915 inclusive. ^ The United States Yearbooks of Agriculture. 



WHEAT 3 

Wheat Districts in the United States. — There are six im- 
portant wheat districts in the United States. Though each dis- 
trict grows a number of varieties of wheat, the kernels of the 
varieties of a district possess similar characteristics. Hardness, 
due to the gluten content, color of kernel, and the time of 
growth are the principal characters which serve as a basis for 
the wheat districts of the United States. INIarket quotations 
are based upon these characters. Each of the six districts and 
the character of the wheat produced will be briefly discussed. 

1. The semi-hard winter wheat district includes the states 
of Missouri, Ilhnois, Iowa, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ken- 
tucky, and the eastern part of Kansas, Oklahoma, and Nebraska. 
The abundance of rainfall produces a wheat high in starch and 
lower in protein content. It ranges from a soft to a semi-hard 
wheat, according to the amount of rainfall in different seasons 
and sections. Where the rainfall is less, the wheat is harder. 

2. The hard winter wheat district includes the states of Kan- 
sas, Nebraska, and Montana and overlaps into Missouri, Iowa, 
Nebraska, and Oklahoma, according to seasonal variations. 
The kernels of the wheat grown in this district are long, slender, 
hard, and red in color. A cross section of the kernel is of a 
grayish amber color. Hard wheat flour is excellent for the 
making of light bread. 

3. The hard spring wheat district includes the upper Missis- 
sippi basin states, namely, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, 
parts of Wisconsin, Iowa, Nebraska, Montana, and Colorado. 
The wheat of this section is spring sown. It is like the hard 
wheats except that the kernels are smaller and harder. It is 
the best bread-producing wheat grown. About one-third of the 
wheat grown in the United States is grown in this district and 
large quantities of flour are manufactured here. 

4. The soft wheat district, sometimes called the Pacific 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Coast or the white wheat district, includes the states of Wash- 
ington, Oregon, and California. The wheat has soft, plump, 
large, white kernels. The flour of this wheat is used for pastries, 
crackers, and biscuits, because of its large starchy content. 

5. The Atlantic Coast wheat district includes the states along 
the Atlantic seaboard. This district produces a soft wheat 
similar to that produced in California, Oregon, and Washington. 
This is a relatively unimportant district, except as it supplies 
the local demands of the district. 

6. The Durum wheat district includes parts of the Dakotas, 
Colorado, Montana, Kansas, and Nebraska. Durum wheat 
requires less rainfall than any other kind of wheat, and is adapt- 
able to the arid and semi-arid states. When other varieties can 
be grown, they are preferred because their yields are greater. 
(See Exercise 2.) 

Wheat States. — The largest production of wheat in the 
United States was in 191 5 when the total yield was 1,011,505,000 
bushels. And the ten leading states in the order of wheat pro- 
duced from 1912 to 1916 inclusive was as follows : 

0% 5% 10% 15% 



U.S. 


810,070.000 


N.DAKOTA 


119.112.000 


KANSAS 


112,200,000 


NEBRASKA 


65.000,000 


MINN. 


55,296,000 


WASH. 


47,584,000 


S. DAKOTA 


41.263,000 


ILLINOIS 


33.476,000 


MISSOURI 


31.470,000 


INDIANA 


31,423,000 


OKLAHOMA 


30,800,000 


REST OF) 
U.S. i 





I 4.1 
3.9% 



8.0% 



6.8% 



5.8% 



5.0% 



I 3.8% 
3.7% 



30.3% 
Graph 2. Wheat production in bushels. 



14.7% 



13.9% 



WHEAT 5 

The ten states mentioned above produced a little more than 
68 per cent of the wheat produced in the United States for the 
period given. 

Low Yields of Wheat. — The average yield for 1906 to 
191 5 inclusive in the United States was fifteen bushels an acre. 
This low average is due mainly to the following factors : 

1 . Use of poor seed. 

2. Poor cultural methods. 

3. Insects and fungous diseases. 

4. Unfavorable seasons. 

The wheat yield per acre in European countries exceeds that 
of the United States. The average cost to produce a bushel, with 
the average yield per acre of a few of the leading countries, for 
a recent period ^ of ten years, follows : ^ 



Cost of Bushel Production 



Average 
Yield 



United Kingdom 
Germany . . 
France . . . 
Hungary . . 
United States . 
European Russia 



45 fi not including land rent 
92^ including land rent 
58 ?f including land rent 
55^ not including land rent 
85^ including land rent 
42^ not including land rent 



33-4 
30.7 
20.1 
18.1 
15.0 

II.O 



Why European countries produce larger yields an acre than the 
United States, is an important question for study. Our natural 
resources are ordinarily as great as those of European countries. 

Place of Wheat in American Agriculture. — Wheat is an 
important product because it succeeds in a very wide range of 
conditions of soil and chmate. Wheat is grown in every state 
of the Union. It is grown in cold Canada and in hot Mexico. 

^ 1905-1914. 2 United States Yearbook of Agriculture. 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



It is adaptable to wide temperature conditions. Wheat is 
grown under wide variations of rainfall. In the semi-arid regions 
less than twenty inches of annual rainfall may mature a crop of 
wheat. In other places thirty-five or forty inches of rainfall may 

not seriously affect a good 
wheat yield. As to soils in 
which wheat may thrive, we 
may indicate that it grows on 
the poorest and the richest of 
soils. It grows in the thick 
clays of the New England 
States and in the semi-arid 
sandy sections of the Western 
plains. 

Wheat is a desirable crop 
because it requires, in its 
production and harvesting, 
seasons of the year that could 
not be well utilized in connec- 
tion with other crops. 

As we have said before, 
wheat will always be one of 
our crops, because it furnishes a product that can be easily con- 
verted into foods usable by man. 

Cost of Wheat Production. — The cost per acre of wheat pro- 
duction depends upon the section of the United States in which 
the wheat is grown, the kind of soil, the tools used in its produc- 
tion, value of land, the price of labor, and upon the amount 
of wheat raised per acre. The average cost of an acre of wheat 
production in the various sections of the United States has 
been estimated to be as follows : ^ 




Fig. I. — Cyrus H. McCormick, whose 
inventions and improvements of the reaper 
caused the wheat cradle to become an imple- 
ment of past history. 



^Crop Reporter igii, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



WHEAT 7 

1. Rental on land or interest on source ....... $3.30 

2. Preparation of soil 2.1 1 

3. Seed 1.42 

4. Fertilizer .58 

5. Sowing .46 

6. Harvesting 1.33 

7. Threshing and preparing for market 1.48 

8. Other items .48 

Total $11.16 

If the average production was fifteen bushels per acre, and 
it cost $11.16 to produce it, the cost to produce a bushel of wheat 
was about 79 cents. If wheat sells at 90 cents a bushel, and it 
cost 5 cents to haul it to market, then the profit a bushel to the 
farmer is 6 cents. At this rate what would a farmer make on 
five hundred bushels of wheat? One thousand? 

In the preceding calculation, the fertility stored in the wheat 
kernels and taken out of the soil was not included. It has been 
stated that the fertilizing constituents in one thousand pounds 
of wheat are as follows:^ Nitrogen, 19.8 pounds; phosphorus, 
8.6 pounds; potash, 5.3 pounds. 

If nitrogen is worth 15 cents a pound, and phos- ig.8 x 15 $2.97 

phorus and potash 6 cents a pound each, then for 8.6 X 6 .50 

each one thousand pounds of wheat kernels re- 5-3X6 .31 

moved, estimate the land fertility taken out of soil. Total $3.79 

(See Exercises 3 and 4.) 

If all the wheat straw is left on the land, and the wheat grains 
only are removed, it is quite certain that for every thousand 
pounds of wheat sold off the farm the fertility of the land has 
been lowered about $3.79. Therefore the farmer, the scientist, 
the teacher, and the student should study how to maintain the 
fertihty of the soil, and how to produce wheat more economically. 

The problem that we shall study next is how to produce the larg- 
^ Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding, Table III. 



8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



est crop of wheat with the smallest amount of labor, at the lowest 
cost a bushel. The amount of human labor required to produce 




Fig. 



The old way of harvesting grain crops, still occasionally in use on small areas. 
The use of this method increases the cost of wheat production. 



a bushel of wheat has decreased a great deal. This decrease is 
mostly due to the improvement of farm machinery, especially 
the reaper. How much the human labor required to produce, 
reap, and thresh a bushel of wheat at different periods has been 
reduced, may be seen from the follomng table : 



Date 


Time Required of Man Labor 


Cost of 
Man Labor 


Man Plus 
Horse Labor 


1832 . . . 
1896 . . . 


3 hours — 30 minutes 
10 minutes 


17I cents 
33 cents 


20 cents 
10 cents 



WHEAT 




lO 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Preparation of Seed Bed to Lessen Cost of Production. — Al- 
though it is difficult to cover all soil conditions and kinds of 
seasons as far as preparing the seed bed is concerned, yet there 
are two points which are to be considered in economic wheat 
production. These two points are : 

1. The time of seed-bed preparation. 

2. The depth of plowing the soil. 

I. Time of Seed-bed Preparation. — At the Oklahoma Station,^ 
similar soils were plowed on July 19th, August 15th, and Septem- 




'/^AVERAGE YIEL^ 
* PER ACRE ^ 

31.3 BUS^ 





Plowed July 19. Plowed Aug. 15. Plowed Sept. 11. 

Fig. 4. — The efifect of time of plowing upon economic wheat production. 

ber nth. The soil plowed July 19th was in the proper state of 
moisture to plow well. That plowed August 15th was some- 
what hard and lumpy; and that plowed September nth was 
dry and cloddy. Each plot was seeded September 15th. The 
germination on the plot last plowed was not good. While not 
exclusively due to time of plowing, the following results were 
obtained : 

' Bulletin No. 47. 



WHEAT 



II 



Soil Plowed Buseels an Acre Yield 

July igth 3^-3 

Aug. 15th 23.5 

Sept. nth 15-3 

From this data it may be seen that the time of seed-bed prepa- 
ration greatly affects wheat yields, for when the soil was plowed 
July 19th, the yield was 31.3 bushels, and when plowed Sept. 
nth, the yield was -only 15.3 bushels. From this it is apparent 
that early plowing for wheat production is profitable. 

If wheat follows oats, the soil should be plowed as soon as the 
oat crop is harvested. Generally it is best to work down the soil 
well as soon as it is plowed, and to harrow or drag it after each 
rain. In this way weeds may be kept down, and an earth mulch 
may be kept, so that the soil moisture is conserved. 

2. Depth of Plowing the Soil. — This has an important bearing 
upon the economic yields and returns of wheat. At the Kansas 
Agricultural Experiment Station an experiment to show the 
effect of depth of plowing gave the following results : ^ 



Date of 
Plowing 


Depth 


Cost of 
Preparation 


Yield Bu. 


Value 


Balance 
on Acre 


July 15 . . . 
July 15 . . . 
July 15 . . . 


7 inches 
5 inches 
3 inches 


^5-35 
4-05 
4-85 


27.22 
22.77 
20.7 


22.22 

18.58 
17.10 


?l6.87 

14-53 
12.25 



This experiment seems to warrant the conclusion that when 
the soils were plowed July 15th, a depth of 7 inches plowing 
gave the best results. Plowing less than 4 inches deep or deeper 
than 7 inches has not been found economic. Subsoiling has not 
met with success in wheat production. However, depth of plow- 
ing and time of plowing are important in economic wheat produc- 
tion. 

1 Bulletin No. iy6. 



12 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Very often wheat is sown on corn land. If the corn has had 
a good seed bed, and has been well cultivated, a good seed bed 
for wheat can be easily and cheaply prepared. 

Methods and Depth of Seeding. — There are in common prac- 
tice two methods of sowing : 

I. Drilling 2. Broadcasting 

Drilling wheat is the general practice all over the United States ; 
broadcasting is still practiced in some sections. It has been proved 
that the harvests from drilled wheat are from 2 to 5 bushels 

more on an average than 
from broadcasted wheat. The 
reasons for this are : 

1. All kernels are evenly 
covered with moist soil and 
therefore germinate evenly. 

2. Wheat standing in the 
drilled furrows does not 
winterkill so easily. 

3. The drilled wheat does 
not heave out of the soil so easily on account of freezing and 
thawing. 

4. The drilled furrows aid in holding the snows. 

Wheat should be drilled just deep enough to be well covered 
with moist soil. In a well-compacted soil, drilling from one 
inch to 1 1 inches is deep enough to insure the most rapid 
germination. In very loose, dry, cloddy soils, wheat should be 
sown about 3 inches deep. 

Rate of Seeding. — There has been a tendency to reduce the 
amount of seed wheat sown. The amount that needs to be 
sown depends upon time, soil, and season. If soil and season are 
favorable, less seed will be needed. But if wheat is sown late, 
it is advisable to sow a larger amount. On 8 plots, where from 




Fig. 5. — A wheat drill properly used reduces 
the cost of wheat production. 



WHEAT 



13 



3 to 8 pecks of wheat were sown, the variations in yields were 
about 4 bushels. The plot where 3 pecks were sown yielded the 
least, and where 5^ pecks were sown the yield was the most. At 
five stations covering an aggregate of a large number of trials, 
it was found that from 6 to 8 pecks of seed wheat sown produced 



NORTH DAKOTA 

N.O. N0.66 

fiubanio 

Marquis 



SOUTH DAKOTA 

Khrkov S.D. No. 1 91 
fiubanka S.D. No. 75 



NEBRASKA 

Turkey Red (Winler) 
^ebr. No. 28 



KANSAS 
Turkey Red 
Kharkov 
Harvest Queen 
Fultz 
Fulcaster 



''^ 



MINNESOTA 

Marquis 

Bluestem 

Preston 



Red Rock 



^==0 



WISCONSIN 

Turkey Red 
Wis.Ped. N0.2 



/MICHIGAN? 



American Bannert 



IOWA 

Turkey Red (Winter) 
Malakoff (Winter) 
Early Java (Spring) 
Marquis (Spring) 



MISSOURI 

Oietz 

Rudy 

Turkey 

Harvest King 

Poole 

Fulcaster 



ILLINOIS 

Turkey Red 
Malakotf 
Red Cross 



[ INDIANA 

i Turkey Red I 
iMich.Amberj 

Rudy 

Fultz 



OHIO 

poo'.e 

FuUz 
Turkey Red^ 
Fulcaster ' 



sEngraxingCo.. N.Y. 



Fig. 6. — Wheat vaiieties your State Experiment Stations recommend. Write to 

your station. 

the largest yields. So the general statement may be made that 
from 5 to 8 pecks per acre should be sown, depending upon soil 
conditions, the size of kernels, the season, and the time of sowing. 
Large Heavy Seed Wheat Increases the Yield. — Experi- 
mental evidence from a number of experiment stations clearly 
indicates that large, plump, heavy kernels of seed wheat give 



14 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



better yields than do small, shriveled seed kernels. Good seed 
produces from 2 to 5 bushels an acre more than poor seed. If 
it is true that the wheat yield can be increased from 10 to 20 per 
cent by sowing good seed, it is advisable to use the fanning 
mill to remove all small, shrunken, cracked, and shriveled 
grains. 

Some wheat is more productive than other wheat. Select 
that wheat which has produced the best results. Your state 
experiment station has found that the varieties indicated in the 
map (Fig. 6) produce the largest crops, and recommends them 
as the best varieties to use in your state. 

Wheat varieties growing side by side vary a great deal in their 
powers of reproduction. It was found many years ago (1857) 
that by selection the wheat yields could be increased. Here are 
the facts : 



First year 
Second year 
Third year 
Fourth year 
Fifth year 



Original head 
Best head raised 
Best head raised 
Heads imperfect 
Best heads 



Length 



4f in. 
6iin. 
7f in. 

8f in. 



Number 
Kernels 



47 
79 
91 

123 



Number Heads Due 
TO One Kernel 



10 

22 

39 
52 



From this it will be seen that by the fifth generation the heads 
were almost twice as long, had more than twice as many kernels, 
and that there was five times as much stooling. The most 
productive plants should serve as the basis for seed wheat. (See 
Exercises 5 and 6.) 

Cultivating Wheat. — When wheat is sown in the fall it is often 
profitable to harrow the ground the following spring. Harrowing 
is especially beneficial when the soil is covered with a dry, hard 



WHEAT 15 

crust. Breaking the crust, making a soil mulch and so conserving 
the soil moisture, often increases the harvests from 4 to 7 bushels 
an acre. Harrowing should be done only along the drilled rows, 
never crosswise. 

When the ground is heaving, on account of thawing and freez- 
ing, rolling may prevent the roots of the wheat plants from being 
broken by the frost. If smaller grass seeds have been sown in the 
wheat, rolHng helps both the wheat plants and the grass seeds. 

Harvesting Wheat. — The hand sickle, the cradle, the reaper, 
the self-binder, the header, and the combined harvester and 
thresher, are the historical emblems of the evolution of the wheat 
industry. Milling machinery has undergone even greater 
changes. Wheat is harvested the year round, in different parts 
of the world. Argentina and New Zealand harvest their wheat 
in January ; East India, Egypt, and Chile, in February and 
March ; the United States, France, England, and Germany, in 
June, July, and August ; and Africa and Peru in November. 

Sometimes when wheat is cut it is put into shocks ; at other 
times it is threshed when it is cut. Stacking wheat is a common 
practice in many sections of the United States. When wheat 
is stacked it usually goes through a sweating or a heating process 
which takes out much moisture from the kernels and improves 
the quality. Wheat, after it is threshed, should be stored in a 
dry, cool place, because insects do not thrive in cold places. 
Granaries should, therefore, be built in dry, exposed places. 
(See Exercise 7.) 

Uses of Wheat. — From the manufacture of wheat, many food 
products are obtained, — breakfast foods, bran, wheat middlings, 
and flour. There are three wheat flours, — white flour, whole 
wheat flour, and graham flour. 

White flour, the kind generally used, is made from the wheat 
kernel from which the bran and germ have been removed. 



1 6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Whole wheat flour contains all the parts of the wheat kernel 
except the larger particles of bran. 

Graham flour is made from the whole grain, and is unbolted. 

There is another kind of flour called macaroni flour, which is 
made from Durum wheat. 

Wheat middlings, a by-product in the manufacture of flour, 
is composed of the bran covering and the germs of the wheat 
kernels. It contains much protein and is therefore a splendid 
food for cattle, hogs, and horses. Wheat bran is simply the 
outer coat of the wheat and is used as a feed for stock. 

Wheat straw, which contains little protein and little fat, and 
much woody liber, is hard to digest, but it may be used as food 
for cattle, horses, and sheep that are roughed through the winter, 
and for this reason should be carefully stacked or baled for winter 
use. A small amount of cottonseed meal or other food rich in 
protein, fed with the wheat straw, will generally bring economic 
returns. (See Exercise 8.) 

Enemies of Wheat. — The two important enemies of the wheat 
crop are fungous growths and insects. It is said that they destroy 
sometimes as much as one-fourth of our yearly wheat crop. 
And often a farmer loses his entire crop as a result of their 
ravages. 

The fungous growths are smuts and rusts. There are two 
kinds of smuts : the loose smut, and the stinking smut. The 
loose smut converts the entire wheat head into a black powdery 
mass ; the stinking smut attacks the kernels only. If a kernel of 
wheat that has stinking smut be cut open, no starchy material 
will be found. Instead, there will be a black smutty material. 
Wheat smuts or oat smuts may be largely controlled by the 
use of a formaldehyde solution. Mix one pound of formaldehyde 
with fifty gallons of water. Spread the wheat or oats on a floor. 
Then sprinkle the seed thoroughly, until every kernel is well 



WHEAT 



17 



moistened. The seed wheat should be turned over and over with 
a shovel while it is being treated. 

As soon as the seed is well moistened, cover with a canvas for 
six to ten hours. This will keep the formaldehyde fumes around 
the kernels. Then spread the wheat out to dry. When dry, it 
is ready to sow. 

Rusts attack the leaves and stems of the wheat plant. They 




Fig. 7. — The formalin method of treating wheat for smut. 



flourish in damp, cool weather, and sometimes destroy nearly the 
entire crop. There is no effective remedy for rusts. 

The two chief insect enemies are the Hessian fly and the 
chinch bug. It is estimated that Hessian flies cause an annual 
loss of over four milHon bushels. The adult Hessian fly resembles 
a mosquito. It lays its eggs on the young wheat plant. When 
the eggs hatch, the young crawl down between the leaf sheath 
and the stem, and make their winter home near the joints of the 



i8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




wheat plant. In a few weeks they change into a pupa stage, — 
generally spoken of as the flaxseed stage because they look like 
a flaxseed. In this form they remain for the winter. In the 

larva stage and after the pupa stage, 
they weaken the wheat stem to such an 
extent that it usually falls down several 
days before the crop matures. There 
are two broods of Hessian flies. One 
of these hatches in the springtime, and 
the other about wheat sowing time in 
the autumn. If a trap crop of wheat 
is sown three or four weeks before the 
Fig. 8. — An adult Hessian fly, regular crop, they will gather in this 

an injurious insect of wheat. , i i i i i ^i m 

and may be plowed under and the sou 
rolled so that the flies and eggs will be destroyed. Sowing the 
wheat crop about ten to fourteen days later than the regular 
seeding time will also generally evade the Hes- 
sian fly, for the females will have gone before 
the wheat crop comes up. 

The chinch bug reduces the wheat yields by 
sucking the sap from the wheat plant. There 
is no way to destroy them while they are in 
the wheat, but, as soon as the wheat is cut, 
they begin to migrate on foot to the near-by 
oat and corn fields. Six or eight feet of plowed 
soil finely pulverized, with one deep furrow 
in it, will obstruct their progress. Sometimes 
a hole about two feet deep is dug in the furrow. The bugs fall 
into this hole. Sometimes kerosene is poured into the hole. 
After the summer is over the chinch bugs hibernate in the grass, 
fence corners, and other rubbish. Cleaning up and burning all 
rubbish is the best way to prevent them the following spring. 



Fig. q. — Hessian 
fly larva before flax- 
seed stage is reached. 
Found upon the back 
of leaves of the wheat 
plant. 



WHEAT 



19 



Every female chinch bug destroyed in the winter or early spring 
is equal to from two hundred to three 
hundred chinch bugs destroyed in early 
May, and from forty to sixty thousand 
in August. 

The grain weevil is very destructive to 
stored grains. Carbon bisulphide set in 
an empty dish evaporates and settles to 
the bottom, because it is heavier than 
air. The carbon bisulphide destroys the 
weevils. Use about one pound of carbon 
bisulphide for every two thousand 
pounds of grain. (See Exercise 9.) 

Summary. — Wheat and wheat prod- 
ucts have been the staff of Hfe since 
prehistoric time. It is such an impor- 
tant crop that it is grown all over the 
world, and is harvested in different parts 
of the world every month of the year. 
Better methods of culture, more care in 
selecting seeds, and greater precautions 
taken in combating the enemies of 



r. 

( 


_^^ 




} 




\ 


\ 




S-1^ 




Fig. 10. — The chinch bug and its progeny. These bugs multiply rapidly. 



20 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



wheat, will aid in making the wheat crop more productive and 
profitable. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. A "Wheat Survey of the School District. — Every pupil in the school 
may help in taking this survey. Secure the following data from every 
farmer of the district. Have pupils keep data in a notebook, and leave a 
permanent record in the school. Record as foUows : 



Name of Farmer 



Acres in Farm 



Acres in Wheat 



Per Cent of 
Farm in Wheat 



Variety of 
Wheat 



2. To Find the Gluten Content of Soft and Hard Wheat Flour. — Weigh 
about 50 grams of each flour named. Make each batch into a thick dough 
by adding water and working. Then wash each until the starch has been 
washed out. Set away for several days to dry. When dry, weigh the 
dough. Divide this weight by the original weight. This will be the per 
cent of gluten. Record results. 

3. To Study the Cost of Wheat Production. — Have pupils, with the help 
of their parents, figure the cost of production of an acre of wheat, using the 
same items as those given in this chapter. 

4. To Find the Cost of Each Implement Used in Wheat Production. — 
Find the cost of each tool and machine used in wheat production. Itemize 
the charge for each implement used. Find total charge for each implement 
used. Find total charge for all tools used. If tools last ten years, what is 
the depreciation of each one yearly? 

5. Germinating Test of Good and Poor Wheat Kernels. — From a sample 
of wheat, sort out fifty good, plump, heavy kernels, and fifty poor, shriveled, 



WHEAT 



21 



light kernels. Germinate each by placing between moist blotters placed in 
a plate. Maintain proper conditions for germination. Record your results. 

6. To Study Kernels of Wheat. 

Description of Grains of Wheat. Check Character thus : ^ 



Hardness 

1. Very hard flinty. . . . 

2. Medium 

3. Soft 

4. Very soft starchy . . . 

Appearance of cross section 

1. Very horny 

2. Horny 

3. Starchy 

4. Very starchy . . . . 

Color 

1. Red 

2. Medium red 

3. White 

Plumpness 

1. Plump 

2. Medium plump 

3. Shriveled 

Cheeks 

1. Full and plump . . . 

2. Flat and thin . . . . 

Crease 

1. V^ery deep 

2. Medium deep . . . . 

3. Shallow 

4. Very shallow . . . . 



Variety 



Fultz 



22 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



7. To Score Wheat. 



Score Card. Winter Wheat 







Sample 


Scale of Points 


Stand- 
ard 
















I 
2 

3 
4 
5 
6 

7 


Uniformity of kernels . . 
Color and purity .... 
Size and plumpness of kernels 

Hardness 

Per cent foreign matter . . 

Soundness 

Weight per bushel .... 
Total 


lO 
lO 
15 
15 
15 
20 

IS 
lOO 

















Explanation of the Score Card. 

1. Uniformity (lo). — To secure full score the kernels in the sample 
should be characteristic of the variety, similar in shape, and practically of 
the same size. 

2. Color and Purity (lo). — The kernels should be clean and bright in 
color, characteristic of the variety. If the sample contains kernels different 
in shade of color from the majority, cut one point for each two per cent 
of these present. 

3. Size and Plumpness of Kernel (15). — The size of the kernel is impor- 
tant both from the farmers' and millers' standpoint. The kernels should be 
large, plump, and well filled ; the crease narrow and deep ; the cheeks well 
rounded. Cut one point for each two per cent of small or shriveled kernels 
found. 

4. Hardness (15). — The grains should be hard and horny. Hardness is 
determined by cutting a number of grains in cross section. If the majority 
show white and starchy, give a rather low score. 

5. Per Cent of Foreign Matter (15). — The sample should be free from all 
weed seed, dirt, and other foreign matter. Cut one point for each weed seed 
found, and according to judgment for other foreign matter. 

6. Soundness (20). — The sample should be free from all broken, 



WHEAT 23 

sprouted, smutty, or musty kernels. The bran should not be cracked, 
blistered, weathered, or streaked. Separate these from the sample and 
estimate the per cent. Cut one point for each per cent present. 

7. Weight per Bushel (15). — A good wheat sample should weigh 60 
pounds per bushel. Deduct two points for each pound below the standard. 

8. Soil Fertility Removed by Wheat. — If a man raises 2 1 bushels of 
wheat on an acre, how much nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash is taken 
out of the soil? What is the money value of the fertility removed? 
A bushel of wheat weighs 60 pounds. Figure this on the actual number of 
bushels raised by the farmers of your locality. 

9. Language Lesson on Wheat Production. — Write a four hundred word 
paper on How Wheat is Grown on Your Home Farm or Elsewhere. 



CHAPTER II 
CORN 

Importance of the Corn Crop. — Between 3,000,000,000 and 
4,000,000,000 bushels of corn are produced in the world annually. 
Of this amount approximately 78 per cent is produced in the 
United States. Austria produces 3.6 per cent; Argentina, 4.0 
per cent; and Mexico, 2.5 per cent. The rest of the world 
produces the other 12 per cent. Corn ranks highest in both 
money value and food value of any farm crop grown. 

The money value of the corn crop of the United States is large. 
If corn is valued at 50 cents a bushel, the corn crop of the United 
States will annually average about $1,500,000,000. This is 
approximately $15.00 for each person in the United States. Corn 
is grown in almost half of the acreage devoted to cultivated crops. 
" Corn is King." The table on page 25 will indicate the com- 
parative importance of corn in American agriculture. 

Corn, in 191 5, occupied 42.3 per cent of the tilled crops above 
indicated ; wheat, 23.4 per cent ; cotton, 11.3 per cent ; and oats, 
16.4 per cent. Hay, not classified as a tilled crop, occupied 
20 per cent of the land used in the production of the above crops. 
(See Table on page 25. See Exercise i.) 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Stalks of dent, pop, and sweet corn, several ten ear samples of the 
leading varieties of dent corn, a corn tree, a seed-testing box filled with 
sand, a few yards of white muslin for making rag-doll tests, a bucket, 
and a pair of trip balances weighing to grams. 

24 



CORN 



25 



Acreage, Yield, and Value of the Leading Farm Crops of the 
United States for 1915"^ 



Crop 


Acreage 


Yield 


Value in Dollars 




Corn . . 


108,321,000 


3,054,535,000 lui. 


?1, 766, 859,000 




Wheat . . 


59,898,000 


1,011,505,000 bu. 


930,302,000 




Hay . . . 


50,872,000 


88,225,000 tons 


912,320,000 




Cotton . . 


30,957,000 


16,134,930 bales 


887,221,000 




Oats . . 


40,780,000 


1,540,362,000 bu. 


555,569,000 




Potatoes . 


3,761,000 


359,103,000 bu. 


221,104,000 




Barley . . 


7,395,000 


237,009,000 bu. 


122,499,000 




Tobacco . 


1,368,000 


1,060,587,000 lb. 


96,041,000 




Rye . . 


2,856,000 


49,190,000 bu. 


41,295,000 




Rice . . 


802,000 


8,947,000 bu. 


26,212,000 




Total . 


256,380,000 


^5,528,342,000 





History of Corn. — Corn is a native of America. It is believed 
upon good authority that the Indians of Old Mexico and Central 





Fig. II. — A far advanced link in the evolution of our splendid 
varieties of corn from Indian maize grown by the inhabitants of New 
Mexico. A section through the ear at a is shown below. 

America have raised and used corn for about two 
thousand years. Columbus wrote a letter to Fer- 
dinand and Isabella in 1498, saying, " During my journey in the 
interior I found a dense population entirely agricultural, and at 
one place passed through eighteen miles of corn fields." Colum- 
bus introduced corn into Spain, and from there it was distributed 

^ United States Yearbook of Agriculture. 




26 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

in turn to France, Italy, Switzerland, Hungary, and Austria. 
From these countries it was scattered over the entire world. 

Types of Corn. — There are six types of corn : dent corn, flint 
corn, pop corn, sweet corn, soft corn, and pod corn. 

Dent Corn gets its name from the dent at the crown of the 
kernels. This indentation is caused by the shrinking of the 
crown starch in drying during the maturing process. Dent corn, 

of which there are more than 
one hundred varieties, consti- 
tutes more than 90 per cent 
^^^ 4 f . , V f of all the corn raised. ' 

■ Fig. 12. — An ear of dent corn. Years oi 

evolution intervened between this ear and Flint Com is a Small, hard, 

the one shown in Fig. ii. -,. , 

nmty, early maturmg type. 
Because it matures early, it is grown in the New England States, 
and other parts of the world where the spring and summer are 
short. Although flint corn is not as productive as dent corn, 
the New England farmers secure larger yields an acre than do 
the farmers in the " corn belt " states. 

Pop Corn is grown for household use. This type has small 
kernels and ears, and will pop easily. Popping is caused by the 
explosion of the heated moisture contained in the kernels. 

Sweet Corn, produced also for household use, has a sugary com- 
position, shriveled covering, and a glassy appearance. 

Pod Corn is the ancestor of all our varieties of corn. Each 
kernel of this corn is covered by little husks. It is thought that 
the little scales which form the place in which the kernels grow 
in our corn are the remnants of the husks on the kernels of pod 
corn. The ears of pod corn are also covered by husks. This 
variety is grown as a curiosity only at the present time. 

Soft Corn is not grown in the United States. It is a soft, 
white, starchy corn, and lacks the hard horny portion we find 
in our dent varieties. (See Exercise 2.) 



CORN 



27 






The Corn Plant. — Corn belongs to the grass family because it 
possesses fibrous roots, a jointed stalk, and veins running the 
long way of the leaf. 

Corn has two kinds of roots : feeding roots that gather plant 
food from the soil, and hrace roots that grow from the first two 
or three joints of the corn plant, and 
prevent the stalk from being blown 
down. The feeding roots naturally 
develop first ; the brace roots develop 
after the corn plant has almost at- 
tained its growth. Eighty per cent of 
the roots grow within 4 or 5 inches of 
the surface of the soil. 

The healthy stalk is of medium 
height and tapers from the ground to 
the tassel. If we examine closely a 
stalk of corn, we shall see that it 
consists of joints called nodes, and 
sections between the joints called in- 
ternodes. If we cut the stalk through 
lengthwise, we shall find that the inter- 
nodes are filled with a soft, pithy sub- 
stance, in which there are a number of 
little threads which run to the nodes. 
These threads are a part of the veins of posed ancestor of all groups and 

. 1-111 varieties of corn. 

the circulatory system of the plant by 

which the water passes through the leaves from the ground. If 
we look closely we shall notice a small groove on one side of the 
internodes. This helps to strengthen the stalk. 

The leaves grow from the joints on alternate sides of the stem, 
clasp firmly around the internode, and extend almost straight 
out from the stalk. 




Fig. 13. — Pod corn — the sup- 



28 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The corn plant has two sets of flowers, the tassel at the top 
of the stalk, and the silks on the ear. The tassels produce 
pollen grains, which fall upon the silks, and throw out a pollen 
tube into the hollow silk. When the pollen tube has grown to 
the place where the kernel is to be formed, fertilization is said 
to have taken place, and the kernels begin to grow. Very dry 
or very wet weather may hinder fertilization. Because the tassel 
matures its pollen several days before the silks appear, corn has 
to depend largely upon surrounding plants for fertilization. For 
this reason a stalk growing alone seldom has much corn on it. 

From fifteen to twenty miUion pollen grains may be borne on 
one corn plant. These may be carried by the wind or by insects 
a quarter of a mile or more. Thus it happens that we sometimes 
see yellow kernels on white ears of corn, or white kernels on yellow 
ears. This is caused by cross fertilization. 

Place of Corn in American Agriculture. — There are three 
reasons why corn holds an important place among our crops : 

1. It will grow in many different soils, conditions, and climates. 
It grows in the warm, long summers of Central America and 
Mexico, and also in the short summers of the Northern States 
and Canada. The time required for ripening varies, according 
to the type of corn is from eighty days in the North to two 
hundred days in the South. 

2. Corn produces more food on an acre than any other cereal 
crop. So it is grown in almost half the acreage devoted to 
cultivated crops. 

3. Corn holds an important place in our agriculture because 
it fits into our systems of crop rotations, and is easily grown. 
In regions where only one crop is grown, — for instance, wheat 
in the North, cotton in the South, — corn has found a place, and 
is rapidly becoming more popular, because, being a cultivated 
crop, it helps to eradicate weeds and insects. 



CORN 



29 



Average Yield, Number of Pounds, Total Digestible Food, and 
Money Value of Corn, Wheat, and Oats, 1905 to 1915, Inclusive^ 



Corn 

Wheal 

Oats 



Average Yield 
PER Acre, Bu. 



26.6 

15.0 
30.0 



Average Yield 
IN Pounds 



Total Digestible 

Food per Acre, 

Pounds 



1400.0 
900.0 
960.0 



1280. 5 
720.0 
672.0 



Money Value 
PER Acre 



^14.92 
13.02 
11.82 



It will be observed from the above table that corn on an aver- 
age produces much more digestible food per acre than does wheat 
or oats. 

The Corn States. — The seven states, Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, 
Nebraska, Missouri, Ohio, and Kansas, are known as the "corn 
belt" states. Their average yearly corn production recently 
for five years was as follows : - 

O^c 57c 10% 15% 



U.S. 

IOWA 

ILLINOIS 

INDIANA 

NEBRASKA 

MISSOURI 

OHIO 

KANSAS 



REST 

11 



■l''] 



2,77C,514,0UU 
365,014,000 
337,940,000 
180,937,000 
175,223,000 
171,045,000 
146,537,000 
109,484,000 



13.6% 



46.9% 



Graph 



■ 6.5%) 

i 6.3% 

6.2% 



5.3% 



113.1% 



12.1% 



Corn production in bushels. 



These seven states raised in the period mentioned more than 
53 per cent of all the corn produced in the United States. 

^ P'igures based upon United States Yearbooks of Agriculture. 

- Data for 191 2 to 1916 taken from the United States Yearbooks of Agriculture. 



30 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana during the same time produced almost 
one-third of the total corn crop. Nevertheless it should be 
stated that the three states having the highest yields an acre 
were Connecticut, Massachusetts, and Pennsylvania. The aver- 
age yield in these states was 37.8 bushels. In the South, where 
long seasons prevail and the temperature and rainfall are more 
suitable, the highest production is possible. 

Cost of Corn Production. — The cost of production and the 
profit or loss from an acre vary, of course, for the different sections 
of the United States. It has been estimated that it costs about 
$12 to produce an acre of corn.^ The items of cost in production 
are as follows : 

1. Land rental or interest $ 3.75 

2. Preparation of land 2. 11 

3. Seed .24 

4. Planting -44 

5. Cultivation 2.24 

6. Fertilizer .62 

7. Harvesting 2.20 

8. Miscellaneous -47 

Total $12.07 

It must also be remembered that the production of corn takes 
from the soil much fertihty, especially nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potash. 

Nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash are worth about eighteen, six, and 

six cents a pound, respectively. Conse- 16 x 18 cents . . $2.88 

quently if 18 bushels of corn are removed 6.9 x 6 cents . . . .414 

from an acre, the values of fertilizing 4x6 cents , . .24 

constituents taken off are Total . . . 13-534 

This fertility value added to the cost of production ($12.07 + 
$3,534) actually makes the cost of production $15,504. The 

1 Crop Reporter (April, 1911), published by United States Department of Agri- 
culture. 



CORN 3 1 

question presents itself in this way — Can 40 acres of corn be 
produced for $620.00? In the above items the depreciation on 
machinery, cost of keeping a team the entire year, and the time 
the labor was not employed, were not counted. According to the 
report above quoted, it was found that the average value of corn 
per acre in the United States was $12.53. How can we improve 
our yields ? 

It costs almost as much to till an acre of corn that produces 
nothing as it does to till one that produces 70 bushels. If 
30 bushels of corn offsets the cost of production, then one 
acre producing 40 bushels yields as much profit as 2 acres 
producing 35 bushels an acre. For in each case we have 
only 10 bushels left after the cost of production has been 
canceled. And one acre of corn, according to above figures, 
producing 70 bushels would be equal to 7 acres producing 35 
bushels an acre; that is, after the first 30 bushels required 
for the cost of production in each case is canceled. (See Ex- 
ercises 3 and 4.) 

The Ear. — The size of an ear of corn depends upon the length 
of seasons. Where the season is long, the ear will be longer 
and larger than where the seasons are short. In the " corn 
belt," a good ear is from 9 to io|- inches long, y^ to 7^ inches 
in circumference, and weighs about 8 ounces. It is cylindrical 
and tapers but little from butt to tip. The butt should be cup- 
shaped and almost covered with uniform kernels of corn. Such 
an ear will shell a high percentage of corn. 

The kernels should be free from mixture with corn of other 
colors. In white corn a foreign mixture discolors the sides, in 
yellow corn it discolors the crown. A mixture of varieties of the 
same colors is difficult to detect, but this should also be avoided 
unless a new variety is wanted. The cob should show the color 
characteristics of the variety. In all white varieties except St. 



32 • PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Charles White, which has a red cob, the cob generally is white ; 
in all yellow varieties the cob is red. 

An ear of corn should be well matured and in good market 
condition. An ear that is poorly covered at the tip and that has 
loose grains is immature. Ears that are worm-eaten, decayed, 
or discolored are in poor market condition. The man who buys 
corn for feed or uses it for seed must heed the points on maturity 
and market condition. 

The kernels of an ear of corn should be wedge-shaped, fit closely 
together in the rows, both at the crown and the tip ; a good kernel 




Fig. 14. Tips and butts of com: a, good; b, fair; c, poor. 



is about one and one-half times as long as it is wide. The kernels 
should be uniform in size, shape, and composition, and should be 
of a bright healthy color, full, smooth, bright, and oily. The 
germs should be large, for kernels with small germs have a low 
feeding value for both animals and growing plants. 

The cob should be of medium size, about twice as thick as the 
kernels are deep. Too large a cob gives a small amount of 
shelled corn, and too small a cob produces a small yield per acre, 
(See Exercise 5.) 



CORN 



33 



Ten Ear Samples of Corn. — In exhibiting corn it is customary 
to show samples of ten ears. Each ear should have the charac- 
teristics of the ear described in the last paragraph. The ears 
should be uniform in length, shape, circumference, color of kernel 
and cob, indentation, and kind of kernel. 




Fig. 15. — Various shapes of corn kernels. Lower kernels are well shaped; all others are 
poorly shaped. The lower kind will shell out the highest per cent of shelled corn. 

If the ears are alike and all good, it shows that they have 
been obtained from several years of growth of the same strain 
of corn, and is a feature of improved corn. 

In judging a ten-ear sample, two kernels should be taken from 
each ear and laid with germs up, just before the ear. They 
should be uniform in germs, shape of kernels, and color. (See 
Exercise 6.) 



34 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Larger Returns from Corn. — The important factors in 
producing larger yields with less land and less work or cost are 
as follows : 

1. Seed selection. 

2. Seed testing. 

3. Cultivation. 

4. Methods of harvesting and feeding. 

Methods of Seed Selection. — There are three methods of seed 
selection : out of the crib ; when corn is gathered ; from the field 
when corn is maturing. 

• I . Selecting seed corn out of the crib in the spring is not a good 
practice, for then the germination power is often lowered and 




Fig. 16. — Ten ear samples of com. A good sample of market, show, or seed com. 
These ears show corn improvement. 



sometimes actually destroyed. How does it happen that the 
germination power is destroyed? Corn when husked contains 
from 25 to 50 per cent moisture. The cold of early fall freezes 
the moisture, which by expansion breaks the germs. This kind 
of ear is called frost-bitten, and cannot be told at sight. The 
planting of one frost-bitten ear causes a loss of from eight 
hundred to nine hundred stalks or 7 to 8 bushels of corn. If 



CORN 35 

the frost does not entirely destroy the germ, it will take away 
much of its strength. For this reason every seed-corn poster 
says, '' Be sure to air dry, preferably, or store dry seed corn early 
in the fall." Selecting seed corn from the crib has also another 
disadvantage. We are unable to know upon what kind of stalk 
the ear grew. The ideal stalk should have a medium height, 
taper from ground to tassel, and indicate strength. Cornstalks 
as well as cows and horses have constitutions, and show vitality. 

2. The second method of selecting seed corn when it is gathered 
is better than the first, but it too has disadvantages. The desir- 
able ears are thrown at gathering time into a separate box, but 
there is no way of knowing the time when each matured. The 
number of days required for corn to mature from the time it 
came out of the ground up to the time it is gathered should be 
carefully noted. One variety may vary as much as 15 to 20 
days. This is very important in seed selection and cannot be 
ascertained if seed corn is selected at gathering time. 

3. By the third method of early fall seed corn selection, the 
farmer goes into the field and gathers about twice the amount of 
seed corn actually needed the following spring. By this method, 
the stalk, the ear, the conditions under which the plant grew, its 
powers of production, and the maturing qualities of the plant 
can all be observed. The stalk and ear that mature early and 
possess the other good points are best. Select a seed ear from a 
stalk that has two good ears on it instead of only one. Select an 
ear grown on a stalk where there are three plants in a hill instead 
of one grown in a hill of only one stalk. If the plant grew under 
adverse conditions and still is equal to other plants grown under 
more favorable conditions, it is preferable for seed. Poor seed 
corn means wasted land and wasted labor. 

Storing Seed Corn. — After seed corn has been selected, it 
should be allowed to air dry, and then be kept in a fairly warm 



36 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



place for the winter. The seed corn may be either hung on a 
" corn tree," or a " binder twine seed hanger," as shown in Fig. 17. 
The kitchen attic, or any place with open windows, is good for 
drying corn. After the corn is dry it should be kept in a moder- 
ately warm, dry place for the winter. (See Exercises 7 and 8.) 

Reasons for Seed Corn Testing. — The average corn yield in 
the United States is about 27 bushels an acre. If the seed corn is 




a? 

Fig. 17. — The right way to hang up seed corn. 



tested, this yield can be increased, for it has been estimated that 
generally there is only one-half or three-quarters of a stand. The 
United States Government has demonstrated that, by seed selection 
alone, the yield of corn in the United States can be increased 20 
per cent. In Iowa the average stand is not more than 62 per 
cent.^ The average yield in Iowa from 1902 to 191 2 was 347,790,- 
000 bushels. If there had been a perfect stand, the yields yearly 
for the ten-year period would have been 560,957,000 bushels; 
or a difference of 212,161,000 bushels. Its value at 50 cents 
a bushel would be $106,081,500. This is approximately the 

^ Iowa Bulletin, No. 135. 



CORN 37 

value of the entire corn crop of Missouri. Similar conditions 
pertaining to a stand will be found in other states. 

It has been shown also that vigor of germination has a large 
effect upon yielding power. Tests have shown that corn showing 
strong germination will yield 80 bushels an acre, medium germina- 
tion 40 bushels, and weak germination 20 bushels an acre. An 
ear, therefore, that germinates with little vigor should be thrown 
out. Annually from one-third to one-half more land is plowed 
and tilled than would be necessary to get the same yield if perfect 
stands were secured. 

Seed corn should be carefully graded in order that the planter 
may drop the same number of kernels each time. This helps 
in getting an even stand. The reason we test and grade seed 
corn is to lessen waste of land and labor. 

Methods of Testing Seed Corn. — The " germination box " 
and " rag doll " methods are usually employed to test seed corn. 
However, under proper conditions it may be tested in the soil 
outdoors. The germination box, 20 X 20 inches, and 4 or 5 
inches deep, is filled with coarse sand or sawdust, over which a 
white cloth marked into 2-inch squares is laid. The squares may 
be numbered from one to one hundred. Six kernels taken from 
different parts of the ear are placed in the squares. The ear is 
marked according to the number of the square upon which the 
kernels are laid. A dry cloth is placed over the seeds. Then 
about one-half to one inch of sand is thrown over the cloth, and 
another cloth is placed over the sand. In about six to eight days 
the test is ready, if the conditions for germination have been 
right. These conditions are : proper temperature (about 70° 
to 80° Fahr.), proper supply of moisture, and free oxygen. 
Unless every kernel germinates, the ear should be discarded. 

In the rag doll test, a white mushn cloth is marked into 2- 
inch squares, and six kernels of corn are laid on each square. 



38 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The square and ear from which the kernels are taken are labeled 
correspondingly. The cloth is rolled up not too tightly and a string 
is tied around it. The lower end of the rag doll is then set in a 
bucket containing about two inches of water. Keep the bucket 
covered. If conditions are favorable for germination, the test will 
be ready to read in about eight days. (See Exercises 9 and 10.) 




Fig. 18. — Germination test of different ears of corn. Discard ears i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, g, 11, 
12, 15, 20. Selection by test is an important factor in increasing corn yield. 

Productive Variations of Corn. — Plants and animals vary 
in their yielding or reproductive capacities. The reproductive 
capacity of corn has been increased by cultivation. The corn 
of the Indians produced ears with ten or twelve rows of kernels 
or less, and with 20 or 30 kernels in a row. One stalk and one 
ear were usually produced in a hill. This would mean corn 
production at the rate of about 200 to 300 kernels per hill, about 



CORN 



39 



7 or 8 bushels an acre. We have increased the yield to 30, 40, 
or 50 bushels an acre. But it is possible to increase our yields 
still more by selecting corn that is prolific. We find sometimes 
three or four plants growing in the same hill, under the same 
conditions. One stalk may have a nubbin, and another stalk 
in the same hill may have two good-sized ears. There may be 
300 poor quality kernels on the one stalk, and 1800 to 2000 good 
kernels on the other. The one is producing corn at the rate of 




Courtesy Iowa State College. 



Fig. ig. — The "rag-doll" seed tester, i, 2, 3, 4, etc., correspond to the numbers on 
the ears ; i A, 4C, 5 C, etc., correspond to numbers on the strings of ears. 



about 7 bushels to the acre, and the other is producing it at the 
rate of 48 bushels an acre. 

What is the reason for the difference in production? The 
plants had the same sunshine, the same soil, the same rainfall, 
and the same culture; so we cannot explain the difference in 
results from soil, surroundings, and cultivation. The explana- 
tion is that the original seed of the two plants came from plants 
that varied in productiveness. That productiveness is largely 
a matter of heredity may be clearly seen. The farmer should 



40 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




-^aiirvip- '^TS 



Courtesy of the Internalional Harvester Co 

Fig. 20. — These three ears came from the same hill. The difference between them is 
due to the producing power of their parents. 



CORN 



41 



therefore select seed that has 
should take the seed ear from a 
than from the stalk that grew 
alone in a hill. Why? He 
should take the ear from a 
stalk that bore two ears in a 
hill of three stalks instead of 
an ear from a hill of two 
stalks each of which bore only 
one good ear. (See Exercise 
II.) 

Yielding Power of Corn. — 
Along with the prolihcacy of 
corn should go yielding power. 
By yielding power is meant 
the weight of sound, well-ma- 
tured corn produced an acre. 



inherited yielding capacity. He 
hill where four stalks grew, rather 





Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 



Fig. 21. — Good and poor types. The top 
kernels came from an ear with too much space 
at cob, indicating low yield, poor feeding value, 
immaturity. Compare them with the kernels 
in the bottom row. 



The corn must also have a high 
feeding value. One 
ear of corn weighing 
8 ounces to a hill 
will produce a yield of 
26 bushels an acre. 
Such a yield is not 
large enough unless 
the corn possesses the 
best type of kernel 



Fig 



Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 



If corn is to yield well, it must fit both ways. 
The upper ones do not fit. 



and is well matured. 
Well-shaped kernels 

with a large germ 
contain the best feed, for the germ is rich in fat and protein. 
In the following table, notice the composition of the germ and 
of the rest of the kernel. 



42 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 





Protein 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Germ 

Rest of kernel . . . 


20.0 
lO.O 


50.0 


20.0 
88.0 


10. 



Immature corn does not feed as well, does not keep as well, and 
is worth less, for it contains more moisture. It will not nourish 
the new growing plant properly. 

The amount of shelled corn to cob depends on the shape and 
depth of the kernel. In Fig. 21, the poor types will shell out 
about one-fifth to one-fourth less. 

Yielding capacity depends among other things upon the shape 
of the ear, upon soil, and cultivation. For this we must know the 
entire story of corn production, and know the varieties that have 
proved most productive in our locaUty. The best yielders for 
your state, recommended by your experiment station, are indi- 
cated by the map on the opposite page. (See Exercise 12.) 

How Cultivation will Increase Corn Yields. — The time and 
depth for breaking the soil depends upon the kind of soil, the 
amount of organic matter, the lay of the land, and the number of 
insects. These vary greatly and depend upon local conditions 
to such an extent that they will not be discussed here. But your 
teacher will tell you the facts about your own county and state. 

The principal objects in tilling corn are: 

1. To keep down the weeds. 

2. To conserve the moisture. 

The best time to kill weeds is when they begin to germinate. 
For this reason corn is harrowed or weeded a few days after it is 
planted. A weeder or smoothing harrow is used. After the 
corn is well up, it should be harrowed again. This destroys 
weeds and also maintains a soil mulch which conserves the mois- 
ture. 



CORN 



43 



The depth of cultivation depends upon the growth of the corn. 
The first cultivation may be deep and close to the corn. There- 
after the cultivation should be shallow, and as the corn becomes 
larger the depth of cultivation should be decreased, and the 



WHITE 
Rustier 
Dak. While Flint 
NORTH DAKOTA 



"'"'TE Silver King 
Wis. No. 7 
SOUTH DAKOTA 
VELLOW 

Minnesota No. 23 
widen Glow 



WHITE 
Dustless White 
IV1INNES0TA 

YELLOW 
Minn. No. 13 i 
Murdock 
Minn. No. 23 I 



V 



WHITE 
Silvermine 
M.Char/es White 
Boone Co. White 
Nebraska Wfiite Prize 

YELLOW Reid's Yellow Dent 
I Learning 

. Nebraska No.3 



WHITE 
Boone Co. White 
Iowa Silvermine 
Silver King 
IOWA 
YELLOW 
Reid's Yellow Dent 



WHITE 
Silver King 
Wis. No. 7 
WISCONSIN 
YELLOW 

Golden Glow 
Wis. No. 12 
Wis. No. 8 



MichTwhite Caj 
.Wis. No. 7 



'-^^b 



^HITE Commercial White 
Boone Co. White 
Pride or Saline 
KANSAS 
YELLOW Kansas Sunflower 
field's Yellow Dent 



) WHITE 



V- ■ PK.u-.VRed sYBii.uen 

Commercial White\,,,.„ pin.j„man 
'v Boone Co. White YL<^ Plowman 
St. Charles White 
IVIISSOURI 
YELLOW 

Reid's Yellow Dent 
St.Charles Yellow 
Learning 



jlvllCHlGANJ 

[yellow -^ . 

Michigan Yellowl 
\ Lean-ing 
I Golden Glow 

rermme Johnson Co. Boone Co. While 
,„..„ Co. White Silvermine \ WcGinms -^ 

VFIIOW 1 Reid's Yell. Dent, 



^HITE 
Silvermine 
Boon 



YELLOW fD'^; 

^Reid'sYeil.DentJYaLOW^^^^, 



/Reid's' 
Learning 



Learning 



Fig. 23. — Varieties of corn recommended by your State Experiment Stations, 
your station for information on the best varieties for your neighborhood. 



Write 



shovels be set farther away from the corn. Overcleep cultivation 
is one of the first causes of reduced yields, because it cuts the 
roots. 

Sixty-one tests of deep cultivation at thirteen experiment 
stations gave an average of 9.8 bushels per acre less than shallow 
cultivation of from one to two inches. In most cases, one to two 



44 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



inches has been called shallow, and four or more inches, deep 
cultivation. 

Cultivating the soil frequently does not greatly change the 
yield. But the crust which forms after a rain must be broken 
up by shallow tillage as soon as the soil is in good condition. 
Crusts on the soil soon crack open, and through them soil moisture 
is rapidly taken out of the soil by sun and wind. Many farmers 

THE LAST CULTIVATION ^^^P ^°^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^' 



SHOULD BE SHALLOW 



DEEP CULTIVATION 
EARLY IN THE SEASON 
SAVES THE MOISTURE 



SHALLOW CULTIVATION 
LATE IN THE SEASON 
SAVES THE CORN ROOTS 



T5v&«T WAV 




tain the dust mulch, after 
corn has grown too big to 
be cultivated with a culti- 
vator, with a one horse tooth- 
harrow or drag. Level tillage, 
except in very wet soils and 
seasons, brings larger yields 
than ridging. Ridging ex- 
poses more surface of the soil, 
and therefore causes more 
soil moisture to evaporate, 
and it breaks many of the 
corn roots. Generally speak- 
ing, ridging is bad farm 
practice. 

Land and Labor-saving Methods of Corn Harvesting . — 
Many farmers do not husk their corn crop, but let the sheep, 
cattle, and hogs gather it. Hogging down corn is a common 
practice. By this method, Httle, if any, corn is wasted. Some- 
times farmers will fence off small parts of the field by fastening 
the hog fence wire to the rows of cornstalks. Hogging down 
corn has the following advantages : 

1. It saves the labor and cost of husking. 

2. It improves the land, for it leaves all the fertility in the soil. 



Cniirtcsy of Intcrnnlional Harvester Co. 

Fig. 24. — The last cultivation should be 
shallow. It provides an earth-mulch and 
does not break the roots of the corn. 



CORN 45 

3. It keeps the hogs healthy and prevents hog cholera. 

Animals have more time than man to gather the corn, and like 
the job better. Why not give them the chance? 

Silo with Every Farm. — Every farm.er who has 10 head of 
beef or dairy cattle, 25 or 30 sheep or some mules, should have a 
silo. An average acre of corn will produce from 6 to 8 tons of 
silage. Corn yielding 30 bushels an acre will make about 6 tons 
of silage ; and corn yielding 60 bushels an acre will make from 1 1 
to 12 tons of silage. By using a silo, nearly all the food of the 
corn is preserved. If corn is cut up into fodder, from 20 to 30 
per cent of the food nutrients is lost. If an acre produces 9 
tons of silage, 3 tons of the food value is lost if it is cut up into 
fodder. For this reason from one-fourth to one-third more stock 
can be kept on a given acreage when the corn is put into the 
silo. Corn fodder during the average winter weather is not 
liked as well by cattle as silage. A cow will eat 40 pounds 
of silage, and if given fodder will eat only from 12 to 18 pounds 
of it. Silage has some other advantages : 

1. It has a beneficial effect upon the digestive tract. 

2. If provides a succulent (green) feed in winter time. 

3. It tones up the entire system of cattle and sheep. 

4. Corn can be put into a silo cheaper than it can be husked 
and shredded. 

5. More feed can be stored in smaller space in the silo than in a 
haymow or shed. 

To the dairyman the silo means succulence of pasture all the 
year round, cheaper feeding, thrifty animals, and increased pro- 
duction.^ At the Ohio College it was found that 100 pounds of 
whole milk can be produced at the rate of 68 cents, when silage 
is fed, and butter at a cost of 13.1 cents a pound. However, 
when an average feed is fed without silage, it costs $1.95 to 
' U.S. Yearbook of Agriculture for 1912. 



46 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



■ -.-i,' ',' ' 


;•• '' 




■i^ffiUHi 




'-■>* '. . 






^^: --i^;^: ^ % 


.1 






1st 




Si 


S"'*<^--' 


■ ■•>^\/: 


"'^ / 


r '•'^y^'l'f'-ii 






f 




■ 


■ 


I^S^Bv. 


mm 


\ ..'41 




4- 


\'^^ 








^jft*»i^H 





CORN 



47 



produce lOo pounds of whole milk and 22 cents to produce a 
pound of butter. The same can be said for beef production. 
Silage and a little cottonseed meal, or clover hay, soybeans, or 
cowpeas make a well-balanced ration. Moldy silage should 
not be fed to stock at any time. 

The Principle of the Silo. — Foods and feeds are preserved 
by canning, drying, salting, pickling, cold storage, and the silo. 
Bacteria and molds that cause decay need heat, moisture, air, 
and food that they may grow. In each of the methods used to 
preserve food one or more of the things necessary for bacterial 
growth are absent. In the silo there is no free oxygen. When 
the silo is not air tight, the silage spoils. A thin layer of silage 
at the top spoils. But a layer of moldy silage protects the rest 
from the air, and preserves it. 

Silage Feeding Table 



Number of Cows 


Estimated Capacity 
IN Tons 


Silo Diameter, 
Feet 


Silo Height, Feet 


7 

13 

14 

IQ 

21 

25 

27 • • 

30 

33 

36 

40 

43 

46 

50 

54 


26 
47 
51 
68 

73 
93 

lOI 

109 
119 
131 
143 
iSS 
166 
181 
196 


10 
10 
10 
12 
12 
14 
14 
14 
16 
16 
16 
16 
18 
18 
18 


20 
30 
32 
30 
32 
30 
32 
34 
30 
32 
34 
36 
32 
34 
36 



48 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 26. — Filling the silo, and saving the maximum amount of feed. 



CORN 4Q 

Materials Used in Silo Construction. — Silos are made of wood, 
concrete blocks, brick, solid cement, glazed tile, and sheet steel. 
In some states, especially the semi-arid and arid states, silos are 
often made in the ground and are known as pit silos. The pit 
silo is often lined with a cement wall. The material used in silo 
construction has no relation to the keeping qualities and feeding 
value or palatabiUty of the ensilage. The kind of silo made 
depends upon the cheapness of the materials to be used in its con- 
struction. The brick and solid cement silos are more expensive, 
but of course they last longer than the ordinary wooden stave silo. 
Ask your experiment station for literature on silos. 

Silage Crops. — Corn is the best silage crop. But sorghums, 
alfalfa, clover, cowpeas, soybeans, and other crops may be used. 
Silage of corn, soybeans, and cowpeas furnish an excellent ration 
for dairy cattle, growing cattle, or sheep. 

When Corn should be Put into the Silo. — Corn should not be 
put into the silo when it is green, for it does not contain as much 
food as it does when it is more mature. The proper time to fill 
the silo is when the corn shows signs of maturity. Then the 
husks are turning white, the lower leaves are getting dry, and the 
kernels are entirely past the milk stage, and are dented. If the 
corn is still more mature and drier, water must be added to it. 
The amount of water depends upon the dryness of the corn used. 
A good general rule is : Add enough water to make the moisture 
content equal to that of green corn. All parts of the corn should 
be moistened, for the parts that are not well moistened often get 
moldy. Corn that shows signs of maturity contains more fat, 
more protein, more sugar, and more starch. 

According to the table on page 50 it may be observed that 
there is less water to be handled when the corn is about ripe and 
that it contains more dry matter, more protein, more sugar, 
more starch, and more fat. These are the essential food 



so 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



nutrients, and therefore corn should be put in the silo when it 
shows signs of ripening. 

Increase of Protein, Crude Fat, Dry Matter, Sugar and Starch ^ 

(Yield per Acre) 





Gross 


Water 


Dry 


Ash 


Crude 


Sugar 


Crude 


Crude 




Weicut 
Pounds 


IN Crop 


Matter 


Protein 


Starch 


Fat 


Fiber 


Tasseled 


18,045 


16,426 


1619 


138.9 


239.8 


239.8 


72.2 


514.2 


Silked . 


25,745 


2 2,666 


3708 


201.3 


436.8 


436.8 


167.8 


872.9 


Milk . 


32,600 


27,957 


4642 


232.6 


478.7 


378.8 


228.9 


1262.0 


Glazed . 


32,295 


25,993 


7202 


302.5 


643.9 


643.9 


260.0 


2755.9 


Ripe . 


28,460 


20,542 


7818 


364.2 


677.8 


677.8 


314.3 


1734.0 



Plants harvested for their stems, leaves, and kernels should 
be cut when almost matured, and scarcely any leaves are kst. 
Where the stems and leaves are to be kept as in the making of 
hay, plants should be cut slightly greener. The best time to 
cut hay is when about one-third of the plants are in bloom. If 
hay is made when it is so dry that it will not pack well, it is not 
in the best condition. Plants gathered for their grains should 
be well matured when harvested. 

Necessity of Rotation. — It is well known by the average 
farmer that, if he plants corn on the same ground for several 
years in succession, the soil loses its producing capacity. We 
can see from the following table, which was obtained by experi- 
ment, that rotation is much more productive than non-rotation. 

Why does production rapidly decrease where no rotation is 
practiced ? Because the available plant foods are depleted, and 
because humus is lacking. One reason why the crop rotation 
mentioned in the table aided production, is because a legume was 
used. Clover, which is a legume, adds nitrogen to the soil, and 
at the same time gathers its foods from a deeper layer. In this 

^ Data from Professor Ladd, Geneva Station. Bowman and Crossley, p. 391. 



CORN 51 

way the near surface soil is rested for one year. Data similar to 
that given in the following table may be had from almost 
every State Experiment Station. 

Effect of Continuous Cropping and of Rotation 



Method of Treatment^ 



Corn grown continuously for seventeen years .... 
Rotation of corn, wheat, and clover for seventeen years . 
Rotation of corn, wheat, and clover plus manure for seven- 
teen years 



Yield 



12 bushels 
51 bushels 

78 bushels 



Uses of Corn. — Corn is used as a feed for horses, cattle, 
sheep, swine, and poultry. For economic fat production corn 
has no equal. The feeding value of com may be enhanced by 
adding to it feeds rich in protein content. Clover hay, alfalfa, 
soybeans, cottonseed meal, or tankage help in balancing the corn 
ration, and aid in growing or fattening animals economically. 

Corn is used for feed as silage, fodder, green feed, and roughage. 
A number of experiment stations have found that 5 or 6 pounds of 
corn are required to produce a pound of pork ; and that 5 to 5^ 
pounds of corn plus some hay will put on a pound of mutton ; and 
from 10 to II pounds of corn plus hay is required to put on a 
pound of beef. The amount of feed required to put on a pound 
of meat depends upon the kind of animal, its age and health, and 
upon the weather conditions. If 6 pounds of corn are required 
to put on a pound of pork, and the pork sells for 7 cents a pound, 
and corn is worth 75 cents a bushel, it can easily be determined 
whether or not it is profitable to feed swine. 

More than one hundred commercial products are manufactured 
from the corn plant. Starch, corn sirup, breakfast foods, alcohol 
and distilled liquors, corn gluten meal, and germ oil meal are made 

' Missouri Circular, No. j8. 



52 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

from the ear. Corn husks are used in the manufacture of horse 
collars and coarse door mats. The cornstalk is made into paper, 
and the pith is used as a packing for war vessels, because it ex- 
pands rapidly when it becomes wet, and closes any gunshot open- 
ings. The cob is made into cob pipes ; and as they are rich in 
potash, cobs are used in the manufacture of commercial fertihzers. 

Summary. — Corn is a native of America, and is one of our 
most important grasses. It is adaptable to a wide range of 
conditions. The several types of corn have been developed 
to meet different purposes and conditions. Corn is grown in 
every state of the Union, but the seven states, Iowa, Illinois, 
Missouri, Indiana, Nebraska, Ohio, and Kansas, produce about 
60 per cent of all the corn of the United States and are known 
as the " Corn Belt " states. 

Selection of proper seed corn, storing, and testing are impor- 
tant points in raising corn yields. It is very important to select 
seed corn from prohfic stalks, and to cast aside low-yielding ears. 
Proper methods of cultivation are also important in increasing 
yields. By hogging down corn, and by putting corn in the silo, 
the economic value of corn may be increased. 

Review the topics in this chapter. 

Recall the facts that you have learned under each topic, using 
the paragraph headings to aid you in the review. Read each 
topic again and see what important points you have omitted. 

What information have you gained that you can use in your 
home work ? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Local Importance of Corn. (Survey of district.) — 
Any pupil may help in this survey. Have pupils bring the following data 
from the homes of every farmer in the district if possible, and record in a 
table like the one following. 



CORN 



53 



Names of Farmers Acres in Farm Acres in Corn 



Per Cent of Farm 
IN Corn 



2. Study of Groups of Corn. — (Dent, pop, and sweet corn.) With 
plants and ears in hand, fill out a table similar to the one below. 

Description of Groups of Corn 



Group Belong- 
ing TO 



Number of 
Leaves 



Kind of 
Roots 



Height of 
Stalks 



Number of 
Kernels 



Character of 
Kernels 



3. To Estimate the Cost of Corn Production. — Figure out, with the 
help of your parents, the cost to produce an acre of corn on your father's 
farm, using the same points as a basis to figure cost as found in the above 
paragraph. 

4. To Find the Cost of Implements Used in Corn Production. — Find 
the cost of each tool and machine used in corn production. Itemize the 
same. How long will the tools last ? How much then do the tools decrease 
in value each year? 

5. Description of Several Ears of Corn. — Examine ears and fill out the 
following outline. Mark thus ( V ) the character in its proper place. 





Characteristic (Mark V) 


I. Shape of ear 

1. Cylindrical 

2. Partly cylindrical 

^. Tanering 








1 








1 








1 








1 








1 



54 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 





Characteristic (Mark s/) 


2. Length of ear in inches 

3. Circumference of ear one-third dis- 

tance from butt to tip . . . 

4. Color of kernel 

1. White 

2. Yellow 

3. Mixed 

5. Indentation 

1. Smooth 

2. Rough 

3. Creased 

6. Number of kernels 

7. Number of kernels to row .... 

8. Number of kernels on ear .... 

9. Space between rows 


1 












































































































1 














































2 Wide 












10. Arrangement of rows 

1. Straight 

2. Twist to right 

3. Twist to left 

II Butt 












1 1 


1 
































I Flat .... 












2. Cup-shaped 

3- Deep 

4. Enlarged 

5. Compressed 

6. Cylindrical like rest of ear . . . 
12. Tip 

I. Covered 
































/ 




































2. Exposed 

3. Cylindrical 

4. Tapering 

13. Cob 

I Color . 
































1 
















2. Size 





















CORN 



55 



6. To Score Com. 



Score Card — Corn 



Scale of Points 



Trueness to type and breed charac 

teristics : 

I. Uniformity of type . 

Shape of ears . . . 

Length of ears . . . 

Circumference of ears 

Purity (a) kernel . . 

(b) cob . . . 



Maturity and market condition : 

6. Maturity 

7. Market condition . . . 

Yielding quahties and vitality : 

8. Character of germ . . 

9. Kernels (a) shape . . 

(b) uniformity . 

10. Butts 

11. Tips 

12. Space 

13. Size of cob 

Total 



Sample of Variety 



10 
10 
10 

s 

5 

5 

45 

5 

5 

10 

10 

5 
5 
5 
5 
5 
10 



45 
100 



Explanation of Score Card. 

1. Uniformity of Type (10). — For each ear differing in shape, color, or 
indentation from the type of the variety cut from one-quarter to one point. 
In scoring single ears cut from one to ten- points according to lack of con- 
formity to breed of ideal type. 

2. Shape of Ear (10). — Ears should be as nearly cylindrical as possible 
and have straight rows running from butt to tip. These characteristics 
usually indicate a high per cent of corn to cob, and a large number of kernels 



56 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

of uniform size and shape for planting. Cut one-fourth to one point for 
each ear that tapers too greatly. 

3. Length of Ears (10). — Add together the deficiency and excess in 
length of all ears not conforming to the standard of the variety, and for each 
inch thus obtained cut one point. Should the deficiency exceed 10 inches, 
a cut of two points for each additional inch shall be made on the total score. 

4. Circumference of Ears (5). — The deficiency and excess in circum- 
ference (one-third the distance from butt to tip) of all ears not conforming to 
the standard of the variety shall be added together, and for each inch thus 
obtained a cut of one-half point shall be made. 

5. Purity — • Kernel (5). — Kernels should be free from mixture with 
corn of opposite color. Mixture in yellow corn is shown on caps of kernels ; 
in white corn on the sides. For each mixed kernel in an exhibit cut one- 
fourth point. 

Purity — Cob (5). — Cobs should be one color; in yellow corn, red; 
and in white corn, white. (Except St. Charles White, which has a red 
cob.) For pink cobs cut one-fourth to one-half for each according to 
shade. One cob of the opposite color shall bar the exhibit. 

6. Maturity (5). — Ears should be well matured, heavy, dry, and the 
kernels bright and firm on the cob. For immature or loose ears cut not to 
exceed one-half point. 

7. Market Condition (5). — Ears should be free from injury or decayed 
spots. Ears showing rotten spots or injuries should be cut one-fourth to 
one-half point. A dead ear should be cut five points. Two dead ears 
shall bar the exhibit. 

8. Character of the Germ (10). — Germ should be full, smooth, bright, 
not blistered, shriveled, or discolored. When broken it should show a fresh 
oily appearance. Cut not more than one point for each ear showing inferior 
germs. 

9. Kernel — Shape (5). — The ideal kernel is sHghtly wedge-shaped but 
not pointed, and its length is approximately one and one-half times as great 
as its width at the widest part. For each ear showing kernels of poor shape, 
cut from one-fourth to one-half point. 

10. Kernels — : Uniformity (5). — ^ The kernels from the different ears 
should be of the same size and shape ; also those in each ear should be 
uniform. For each ear having kernels which differ in shape or size from 
the majority, cut from one-fourth to one-half point. For each ear with 
very irregular kernels, cut from one-fourth to one point. 



CORN 



57 



11. Butts (5). — An ideal butt on an ear of corn should be well rounded 
out, with regular rows of deep kernels, solidly and evenly compacted around 

a clean cup-shaped cavity. Cut not to exceed one- 

half point for each defective butt. 

12. Tips (5). — The tips should be filled out to the 
end with deep kernels in regular rows. The ideal tip 
is completely covered, but if kernels are deep and 
regular to end of cob, no cut need be made. Cut not 
to exceed one-half point for each defective tip. 

13. Space (5). — There should be no open space 
between the kernels in the row, either at the crown 
or at the cob. Cut not to exceed one-half point for 
each ear seriously defective in this respect. 

14. Size of the Cob (10). — The cob should be 
medium in size with diameter about twice the depth 
of the kernel. Too large a cob gives a low per cent 
of corn, while too small a cob does not favor a large 
yield per acre. Cut one-half to one point from each 
cob markedly out of proportion in this respect. 

Note. — The score card is designed for scoring 
ten-ear samples. To score single ears, cut in tenths 
of points according to judgment. 

7. To Illustrate Method of Storing Seed Corn. — 
Hang in a dry place a sample of seed corn as illus- 
trated in the picture for hanging seed corn. 

8. Making a Corn Tree. — Have class make a corn 
tree, and have them illustrate the method of seed stor- 
ing with it. 

9. Testing Seed Corn. — Test ten ears of seed corn. 
Take six kernels from different places of the ear and 
plant in box of sawdust or sand. Pack sand or saw- 
dust well. Lay over it a white cloth, marked into 
two-inch squares. Lay six kernels from one ear, 
taken from the butt, middle, and tip, in a square. 
Test all ten ears in this manner. Moisten well. Keep 
in a warm place (70° to 80° Fahr.) until kernels germinate, 
you find, after kernels have had time to germinate. 



I"n^. 27. — A corn 
tree — one method of 
storing seed corn. 



Record what 



58 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



10. Reasons for Testing Seed Corn. — On a field trip figure the per 
cent of stand. There are 43,560 square feet in an acre. If corn is planted 
three feet and six inches each way, there are 3556 hills on an acre. (Sixteen 
hills square or two hundred fifty-six hills is one-twelfth acre.) There should 
be three kernels per hill or 768 stalks in one-twelfth acre. Count the number 
of stalks in sixteen hills square and divide the result by 768. This wiU give 
the per cent of stand. After the class exercise have pupils bring data from 
their parents' farms. 

11. Find Per Cent of Shelled Corn to Ear. — Do this with four or five 
ears of different types. Weigh the ears. Then shell. Weigh shelled corn. 
Divide the weight of shelled corn with two ciphers annexed, by the total 
weight of the ear. This gives the per cent of shelled corn. 

Data on Ears 



Ear Number 



Total Weight 



Weight of Shelled 
Corn 



Per Cent of Shelled 
Corn 



12. Find by Count the Productive Variations of Corn. — Take hills 
where two, three, or four stalks are growing. Count or approximate closely 
the number of kernels on each stalk. Record as follows : 

Productive Variations of Corn 



Hill Number 


Number of Kernels 




Ear No. i 


Ear No. 2 


Ear No. 3 


Ear No. 4 













CHAPTER III 



OATS 

Importance of the Oat Crop. — The oat crop of the world is 
about the same in bushels as the wheat or corn crop ; it slightly 
exceeds the wheat crop, and does not quite equal the corn crop 
in bushels. However, the wheat crop exceeds the oat crop in 
weight. 

The following graph shows the oat production of the important 
countries and their relative production for a recent period of five 
years : ^ 



0% 



10% 



20% 



30% 



40% 



50% 



60% 



EUROPE 

N.AM. 

AUSTR. 

ASIA 

AFRICA 



2,652,000,000 

1,610,000,000 

24,000,000 

23,000,000 

23,000,000 



I 0.55% 

10.5% 

0.5% 



37 



1% 



===1 
61.2% 



Graph 4. 



The oat crop is one of the important crops in the United States ; 
corn, cotton, hay, and wheat are the only crops of greater value. 
The average production of oats in the United States from 1911 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Several samples of shelled oats ; scales ; several heads of oats, showing 
the widest variation of kernels per head produced under conditions as 
nearly similar as possible. 

' United States Yearbook of Agriculttire (years 1911-1915 inclusive). 

59 



6o 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



to 191 5 was 1,150,960,000 bushels and the average acreage yield 
was thirty bushels. (See Exercise i.) 

The Oat States. — The twelve states, Iowa, Illinois, Minne- 
sota, Wisconsin, North Dakota, Ohio, Nebraska, Indiana, 
Michigan, South Dakota, Kansas, and Missouri, produce almost 
75 per cent of the entire oat crop of the United States. Iowa and 
IlKnois alone produce more than 25 per cent of the entire oat 
crop. 

The following table shows the average yearly oat production 
of the twelve leading oat-producing states of the Union : ^ 



0% 



5% 



10% 



15% 



U.S. 


1.296,437,000 


IOWA 


187.205,000 


ILLINOIS 


156,072,000 


MINN. 


109,294.000 


WIS. 


81,786,000 


N.DAKOTA 


73.939,000 


NEBRASKA 


67,000,000 


OHIO 


63,000,000 


INDIANA 


55,807,000 


S.DAKOTA 


53,513,000 


MICHIGAN 


50.905.000 


KANSAS 


44,899,000 


MISSOURI 


30,705,000 


RESTOFl 
U.S. / 





8.2% 



6.3% 



5.6% 



I 5.1% 
4.8 7o 



4.3% 



4.0 



■ 3.0^ 
3.4% 



2.3% 



25.8% 



% 



14.4% 



12.0% 



Gr.\ph 5. 



A little more than one-fourteenth of the entire improved farm 
acreage is devoted to oat production. The greatest oat states, 
however, do not have the largest acreage yield. Iowa's average 
was 32.8 bushels for 1907 to 1916 inclusive. The state of Wash- 

' United States Yearbook of Agriculture (years 1911-1916 inclusive). 



OATS 6 I 

ington for the same period averaged 48.2 bushels. In the North 
Central States the average acreage yield for that decade was 29.2 
bushels, while the Pacific States averaged 40.9 bushels. 

Conditions of Oat Production. — If other conditions are right, 
oats will produce as well on poor soils as will any other crop. 
Barnyard manures and commercial fertilizers are seldom applied 
to soils for oat production. On very rich soils, oats will fre- 
quently lodge, or become thickly matted on the ground, and for 
this reason oats are usually sown on the poorer fields of the farm. 
The experiment stations have been and are still attempting to 
originate varieties of oats that have stiff er straw. Up to the 
present time they have not succeeded. 

Oats thrive best in cool, moist soils. The heaviest yields of 
oats are made in cool, moist years. It has been found that it 
required 504 pounds of water to produce one pound of dry 
matter in oats. It is for this reason that a fairly wet season 
produces the best oats. But besides this, in the early periods 
of growth, tillering, or stoohng, is best produced in moist, cool 
weather. 

Oats grow best in a cool climate. They will thrive farther 
north than either corn or wheat. The North Central States 
are the best suited to raising oats, because there the summers are 
cool and moist. Norway and Sweden, Scotland, and Canada 
produce large quantities of oats. The center of production in 
the United States now is Iowa, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
Ohio, Indiana, and Nebraska. These states make what is called 
the " Oat Belt." Why is it probable that they will remain the 
principal oat states? (See Exercise 2.) 

Cost of Oat Production. — As in wheat, the cost of producing 
oats has become very much less. However, it still costs so much 
to raise oats that there is Uttle profit in the crop. Farmers often 
lose on a crop of oats. The cost of producing an acre as given 



62 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



by the Bureau of Statistics of the United States Department 
of Agriculture is as follows : ^ 

I. Land rent $ 3.78 



Preparation of soil 

Seed 

Harvesting . . 
Threshing . 
Miscellaneous 
Total .... 



1.88 
1. 12 
1-34 

1.38 



If this acre produces 35^ bushels, then it costs 31 cents to raise 
a bushel of oats. The average value of an acre was $14.08, or 
40 cents per bushel. This leaves a net balance of $3.17 per acre, 
above the cost of production. When less than 20 bushels of 
oats are produced, it may be safely estimated that oats are being 
produced at a loss. How to raise oats cheaper is an important 
question. 

It is the belief generally that poorly prepared soil, poor seed, 
and enemies cause low yields and raise the cost of production. 
If 50 bushels can be produced per acre, the cost per bushel will 
be nearly 20 cents per bushel. In the countries of Europe more 
bushels of oats are raised to an acre than in the United States. 
In Germany nearly twice as many bushels are produced on an 
acre ; in the United Kingdom of Great Britain about one and 
one-half times as many. 

Average for Ten Years of Oats Produced on an Acre in 
Countries of Europe^ 



Germany . . 
United Kingdom 
France . . . 
Austria-Hungary 
United States . 



57.4 bushels 
44.7 bushels 
30.0 bushels 
31.0 bushels 
29.4 bushels 



1 Crop Reporter for 1 9 1 1 . 

^United States Yearbook of Agriculture (years 1902-1911 inclusive). 



OATS 63 

How to produce oats more cheaply in our own country will 
be discussed next. (See Exercise 3.) 

Preparation of Seed Bed. — In the states of the corn belt, 
where oats follows corn, the seed is usually broadcasted on the 
corn ground, and then cross disked and harrowed. Although 
this does not produce the largest yields, it does not greatly lessen 
the yields ; and it is probably the most economic way of pre- 
paring, sowing, and producing the oat crop. Oats sown in this 
way may be put in early in the spring. What is lost because 
the seed bed has been poorly prepared, is gained in the ripening 
of the crop. This is important in oat production. 

Where soils are hard and compact, they should be plowed 
from 3 to 5 inches deep in the autumn. Fall plowing has the 
following advantages : 

1. Fall-plowed soils catch and hold all the moisture that falls. 

2. These soils dry earlier in the spring and are therefore 
warmer. 

3. Oats can be sown earlier on fall-plowed soils. 

4. All vegetable matter that is turned under decays through 
the winter, and makes the seed bed more fertile and uniform. 

With little preparation, a soil that is plowed in the fall may 
be prepared for drill seedage. Drilling oats has the following 
advantages : 

1. Every seed has an equal chance to grow. 

2. The seeds are evenly distributed. 

3. The crop will mature more evenly and uniformly. 

4. The yields are larger. 

5. It requires less seed. 

Oats should be planted from i to 2 inches deep. 

Amount and Kind of Seed. — The amount of seed per acre 
depends upon soil, season, time of sowing, and variety of seed. 
It may be less on rich than on poor soil, for stooling, or sprout- 



64 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

ing and taking root, is more abundant on rich soils. In a cool, 
moist season, stooling increases, and so less seed may be sown. 
When oats are sown early, the amount of seed may be slightly 
lessened. Why? The number of oat kernels in a bushel varies 
from 352,000 to 960,000 seeds. This also will affect the amount 
of seed sown. Can you tell how? There is no fixed rule for 
how many bushel should always be sown to an acre, but it is 
safe to say that from 2 to 3 bushels is the average. At the 
Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio Stations, it was found that from 8 to 
10 pecks gave the best yields. 

Seed oats should be clean, show improvement, and weigh at 
least 32 pounds to the measured bushel. They should be free 
from weed seeds, sticks, chaff, etc. Seed oats should be uni- 
form in color, showing that the variety is pure. If the seeds 
vary a great deal, it is a sign of a mixed variety and therefore 
shows lack of improvement. If oats do not weigh 32 pounds, 
the grains are probably not well filled, — there may be empty 
hulls. In good oats there may be as little as 30 per cent hulls, 
and as much as 70 per cent kernel. Home-grown seed raised 
within 100 miles should be used in preference to imported seed. 
It may be well enough to test out a few samples with this in 
mind, i.e., finding the per cent of hull to kernel. (See Exercise 4.) 

Characteristics of a Good Oat. — The qualities that oats 
should possess are : 

1 . Each head must have a high percentage of kernel. 

2. It must yield well. 

3. It must have a good weight per bushel. 

No oats should be taken as seed unless it has large heads full 
of good kernels. Two oat plants may be growing under exactly 
the same condition, — the one bearing 25 or 30 seeds, and the 
other 1 50. How do you explain this variation ? It was not due 
to rain, soil, sunshine, or environment. It was due to the fact 



OATS 



6S 



that one inherited a greater tendency to reproduce. Then it 
must yield well ; that is, produce a large number of bushels per 




Fig. 28. — A prolific and non-prolific head of oats. 

acre. And, again, it must be filled so that it will weigh well. 
Some factors that will aid in the yield and quaUty of oats are : 

1. Earliness of maturing. 

2. StifTness of straw. 

3. Resistance to heat and drought. 

4. Rust resistant. 

5. Prolificacy. 

6. Hardiness. 



66 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The time for maturity in oat varieties ranges from about 80 
to 115 days. Early maturing varieties are generally the safest 
and best yielders, because they do not lodge so easily, escape in 
hot, dry weather, and are mature before they are injured by 
rust and other enemies. There are varieties best suited to each 
locality. It is advisable that the teacher or pupils write to their 
own experiment station regarding this point. 




Fig. 29. — Oat varieties your State Experiment Stations recommend. Write to them. 

Texas Red Rust Proof was recommended as being among the 
best varieties by 8 out of 25 stations ; American Banner by 10; 
Badger Queen by 6. Kherson, or Sixty-day Oats, is growing in 
popularity. Swedish Select, White Bonanza, Lincoln Siberian, 
Clydesdale, and Wide Awake and Welcome varieties are popular 



OATS 



67 



in some localities. The varieties of oats recommended by your 
experiment station are indicated in the map on page 66. (See 
Exercise 5.) 

Uses of Oats. — The digestible composition of one hundred 
pounds of oats, oatmeal, and oat straw is as follows : 



Oats 
Oatmeal 
Oat straw 



Dry 

Matter 


Fats 


90.8 
92.1 
88.5 


9-7 

12.8 

1.0 



Carbohydrates 



52.1 

56.9 
41. 1 



Protein 



3-8 
6.0 

1-3 



Nutritive Ratio 



I :6.3 

i: 5-5 
I : 44.6 



For horses, dairy cows, growing calves, laying hens, oats, on 
account of the protein content, is an excellent feed. Oats have 
a stimulating and conditioning effect upon horses that is possessed 
by no other grain. " The horse feels his oats," is a common ex- 
pression. What does it mean? It means that the horse pos- 
sesses life, vigor, energy, ambition. To the work horse, oats 
give strength, power, and willingness to go. To the dairy cow, 
oats give greater milk production ; and to the laying hen, more 

eggs. 

Oat straw is a splendid feed for cattle, horses, and sheep that 
are simply roughed through the winter. It is superior to wheat 
straw in feeding value because it contains more digestible food 
nutrients. If a Httle feed rich in protein — alfalfa hay, clover 
hay, or soybeans — is fed along with oat straw, cattle, horses, or 
sheep may be cheaply roughed through the winter.' The fer- 
tiUty in a ton of oat straw is worth about $3, and, for that 
reason, it should never be burned. Oat straw makes an excellent 
absorbent as bedding, and is used extensively for that purpose. 

Oats are made extensively into oatmeal. For oatmeal, a 
white variety that contains large berries is raised. In oatmeal 



68 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 30. — 
Oat head af- 
fected by smut. 



making, the hulls are taken off the kernel, and the 
rest of the kernel is passed through rollers that 
flatten the kernels well. Then it is ready for the 
market. After oatmeal is cooked, it is a very 
palatable, nutritious dish, and is eaten by people 
in northern climates in order to give heat energy, 
and by the workingman, for the heat and muscle 
energy it gives. The Scottish people have used oat- 
meal as a standard food for many years, and the 
people of the United States are consuming large 
quantities of it. 

Enemies of Oats. — The insect enemies of oats 
are chinch bugs, grasshoppers, and army worms. 
The chinch bug is the most important insect oat 
enemy. The method of combating chinch bugs was 
mentioned in connection with the wheat industry, 
and need not be repeated here. 

The most important fungous enemies are rusts 
and smuts. There are two kinds of rusts, the leaf 
rust and the stem rust. Rusts attack oats usually 
from ten to fifteen days before maturity. The only 
means of combating rusts is by the selection of early- 
maturing and rust-resisting varieties. 

There is only one kind of smut in oats. It is the 
loose smut. The formaldehyde treatment described 
in connection with the discussion on wheat is the 
cheapest and safest remedial treatment. 

Summary. — Oats is one of the important crops 
in the United States. The North Central States 
are the great oat-producing states. Oats thrives 
best in cool, moist conditions. A better preparation 
of the seed bed, sowing good seed, drilling in oats, 



OATS 



69 



and using varieties that are prolific, are important factors in 
the economic production of oats. Oats is an excellent feed and 
for this reason will always be one of our important farm crops. 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Local Importance of Oat Crop. (Oat survey of district.) — Any pupil 
in school may aid in this survey. Get the following data from every farmer 
of the district. Keep as a permanent record. 



Oat Survey of District 



Date 



Teacher 



Names of Farmers 



Acres in Farm 



Acres in Oats 



Per Cent of 
Farm in Oats 



Variety of Oats 



2. What year, or years, have the farmers of your locality raised the 
best oat crops? Write the reasons. 

3. To Study the Cost of Oat Production. — Estimate, with the help of 
your father, the cost to produce an acre of oats on his farm, using the same 
points and others used in the above discussion on the same topic. 

4. To Find Per Cent of Hull. — Weigh out about 50 or 100 grams of 
oats. Remove the hulls and weigh them. Divide the weight of the hulls 
by the weight of the sample. This will give the per cent of hull. Record 
as follows : 



Sample No. 



Weight of 
Sample 



Weight of 
Hull 



Per Cent 
of Hull 



Per Cent 
Oatmeal 



70 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



5. A Study on the Prolificacy of Oats. — Bring to school samples of oat 
plants having the widest possible variations in number of kernels in the head. 
Count kernels and record your findings. 

6. Judging Oats by Score Card. 

Oat Score Card 



Scale of Points 



Uniformity of grains 

Color 

Size and plumpness . . 
Per cent hull . . . . 
Per cent foreign matter 
Per cent damaged grain 
Weight per bushel . . 
Total 



Stand- 
ard 



lO 
ID 

15 
15 
15 
15 
20 
100 



Sample of Variety 



Explanation of the Score Card. 

1. Uniformity (10). — Size, shape, and color. The sample should have 
grains uniform in size and shape, and of the same shade of color. Divide 
the sample into two parts and by count find the per cent of grains differing 
in size or color from the majority. Cut one point for each 3 per cent 
found. 

2. Color (10). — The color should be true to the variety, bright, free from 
weathered, binburned, or otherwise discolored grains. Divide the sample 
into two parts and cut one point for each 2 per cent found to be off color. 

3. Size and Plumpness (15). — Grains should be long, thick, and plump. 
Divide the sample into two parts, separating out pin oats, those hulls which 
are empty, and those which are shrunken, light kernels. Cut one point for 
each 2 per cent found. 

4. Per Cent of Hull (15). — The per cent of hull depends upon the 
variety, the locality in which grown, and the season. Good oats may have 
as little as 30 per cent hull. Separate the hull from a number of berries 
and estimate the per cent. Cut two points for each per cent of hull above 
thirty. 



OATS 71 

5. Per Cent of Foreign Matter (15). — Sample should be free from all 
weed seed, dirt, and other foreign matter. Separate these out from the 
sample and estimate the per cent. Cut one point for each weed seed found 
and according to judgment for other foreign matter. 

6. Damaged Grains (15). — Sprouted or decayed grains have little more 
feeding value than so much trash. Separate out the musty, smutty, and 
sprouted grains and estimate the per cent. Cut one point for each per cent 
found. 

7. Weight per Bushel (20). — The sample should weigh at least 32 
pounds per measured bushel. For each pound over 32 which the sample 
weighs, add one point to the final score. Cut one point for each pound 
below 32. 



CHAPTER IV 
RED CLOVER 

History and Importance of Red Clover. — Red clover origi- 
nated in Persia, whence it was imported into Europe. Spain, 
Holland, and Italy grew it in the fifteenth century. Red clover 
was first grown in England about 1633. Pennsylvania began 
to grow red clover in 1770, being the first state to grow it. Now 
it is grown in every state of the Union. The clover district is 
in the North Central States, — north of the Ohio River and east 
and north of the Missouri River. The largest centers for red 
clover seed are Chicago, Cincinnati, Toledo, and Detroit. The 
yield per acre runs sometimes as high as 4 or 6 bushels. The 
value of clover seed is usually from $8 to $12 a bushel. (See 
Exercise i.) 

Cultural Methods and Kind of Seed to Use. — Red clover is 
frequently sown during the early spring in growing wheat. 
When the soil is in the " honeycomb " condition, caused by 
freezing and thawing, is a good time to sow, for the seed is then 
covered by the alternate freezing and thawing of the soil. The 
seeds germinate at the opening of spring. From 8 to 15 pounds 
of seeds are sown to an acre. The amount to sow depends upon 
the size of the seeds (there being from 12,000,000 to 25,000,000 
seeds in a bushel) and upon their germinating power. No seed 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Several pint samples of red clover seeds, a red clover plant showing 
nodules, a pint sample of white, crimson, and alsike clover seeds. These 
may be kept for several years. 

72 



RED CLOVER 



73 



should be sown unless it will grow to the extent of 80 to 85 seeds 
to a hundred. Sowing clover early has the advantage that the 
hard, heavy seed coat is softened and broken down to a consider- 





FiG. 31. — Poor and good red clover seeds. 

able extent by the rigorous weather. This insures a higher per 
cent of germination. 

Red clover is sometimes sown in oats, but generally grows 
better in wheat. There are two reasons for this : oats are 
thicker on the soil, and shade the ground ; the oat crop draws 
very heavily on the soil moisture. There are two ways by 
which clover may be sown with oats to advantage: (i) By 
sowing from 4 to 6 pecks less of oats seed, thus giving the clover 
more room and water, and (2) By having sheep or cattle graze 
the oats down when they are 14 to 20 inches tall. Grazing 
very closely often injures the clover. (See Exercises 2 and 3.) 

The seed used should be uniform in size, bright in color, large, 
plump, and free from weed seed and foreign matter. Home- 
grown seed is generally preferable to imported seed. Frequently 
very harmful weeds are introduced upon a farm by using seeds 
that contain weed seed. After weed seeds get a start in a hay 
crop, they are scattered by the cattle all over the farm. There- 
fore all seed should be carefully examined before it is purchased 
to see that it is free from seeds of harmful weeds. (See Ex- 
ercises 4 and 5.) 



74 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Some Advantages in Growing Red Clover and Other Legume 
Crops. — The legume crops include the clovers, alfalfa, cowpeas, 
and soybeans. Although some of them are more profitable 
under certain conditions than others, the growing of each has 
the following advantages for the farmer : 

1. They all take free nitrogen from the air and add it to the 
soil. 

2. They all have a long taproot, and can therefore get some 
of their plant food from the lower strata of the soil. In this way 





Red clover root. Alfalfa root. 

Fig. 32. — Note the long taproots and the nodules, which gather nitrogen and store 

it in the soil. 

they open up the soil deep down and improve its physical con- 
dition. 

3. They store up a large proportion of protein, and are there- 
fore helpful in balancing the ration for all kinds of farm animals. 

4. By rotating legumes insect life is checked. 



RED CLOVER 



75 



The growth of legumes in crop rotations has long been recog- 
nized as good farm practice. We shall study each of these 
advantages more fully. 

The legumes replace the nitrogen taken from the soil by other 
crops. Every farmer boy has observed the "nodules" that 
grow on the roots of leguminous crops. These nodules are full 
of bacteria. They gather nitrogen from the soil air and store it 
in the legume plant. Conditions that help bacterial growth 
should, therefore, be provided as far as possible by the farmer, 
A medium dry, fairly warm soil, which contains plenty of well- 
decomposed organic matter, will stimulate the bacteria. The 
use of leguminous crops in maintaining the soil nitrogen is the 
most economic. Nitrogen in the form of commercial fertihzer 
is worth 15 to 18 cents a pound; sometimes, when in great 
demand, more. (See Exercise 6.) 

The long taproots of the legumes gather plant foods from 
greater depths than other crops, and therefore rest the surface 
soils. The growing taproots open up the subsoil, and upon decay 
leave the subsoil open. They also bring from the subsoil to the 
surface plant foods which may be used by other crops. The 
decay of roots aids percolation and capillarity of soil water. 

The legumes are rich in protein, and for this reason balance 
other feeds. The following table illustrates the difference in 
the digestible composition of corn silage and some legume hays : 



Article 


Dry Matter 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Protein 


Nutritive Ratio 


Corn silage 


26.3 


0.7 


I5-0 


I.I 


I : 15. 1 


Alfalfa hay 


91.4 


0.9 


39-0 


10.6 


1:3-9 


Cowpeas 


90-3 


I.O 


33-7 


I3-I 


i: 2.7 


Soybeans 


91. 4 


1.2 


39-2 


II. 7 


1:3.6 


Red clover 


87.1 


1.8 


39-3 


7.6 


i: 5-7 



76 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Examine carefully the column marked protein. See how 
much more protein there is in red clover than in corn silage. 
The nutritive ratio in corn silage is 1:15.1 and in cowpeas it 
is I : 2.7. The legumes are rich in nitrogen and protein, and 
therefore help to make a well-balanced feed when used with 
corn or oats which contain fats and carbohydrates. Carbohy- 
drates and fats produce heat and energy ; proteins build tissue, 
bone, muscle, and cell walls. 

Legumes check insects which are injurious to our most im- 
portant crops. Chinch bugs, Hessian flies, and the corn-root 
worm do not eat leguminous crops. Where legumes are in the 
regular crop rotation, insect and fungous pests largely disappear. 

Soils Adaptable to Red Clover Production. — Red clover 
thrives best in a well-drained, porous soil and subsoil rich in 
lime, and in a soil containing a good deal of well-decomposed 
vegetable matter. The amount of nitrogen in the soil need not 
be great, but a good supply of phosphorus and potash aids the 
growth of red clover. It will not do well in a hard, compact clay 
soil. A loose, black loam soil, with a porous subsoil, produces it 
best. Clover is sustained by a long taproot which penetrates into 
the soil from 3 to 6 feet. A sour or acid soil, which lacks lime, 
will not grow red clover. From one and one-half to three tons per 
acre of ground limestone applied to clover lands, especially where 
the ground is sour, will aid clover production. Well-decomposed 
organic matter also aids the growth of clover, for the bacteria 
which produce the nodules on the roots live on food supplied by 
organic matter. Through the nodules clover takes nitrogen 
from the air. Too wet soil will likewise hinder bacterial life. 

Making Clover Hay. — What is the best time to cut clover 
and cure it for hay ? At what stage of its growth will it contain 
the most food nutrients and be the most palatable? The fol- 
lowing table answers these questions : 



RED CLOVER 

Yield and Nutrients in an Acre of Red Clover ^ 



77 



Stage of Growth 
WHEN Cut 


Yield of 

Hay per 

Acre 


Ash 


Crude Pro- 
tein 


Carbohydrates 




Fiber 


N. Free 
Extracts 


Fat 


Heads in bloom 
Some heads dead 
Heads all dead . 


Pounds 
4210 
4141 
39IS 


Pounds 
260 
226 
208 


Pounds 

539 
469 
421 


Pounds 

1033 
1248 
1260 


173I 
1379 
1378 


Pounds 
116 
106 

94 



This table shows that there is a greater yield of ash, crude 
protein, and fat, when clover is in bloom than at any later period. 
This would indicate that the best time to cut clover for hay is 
when most of the heads are in bloom. However, it is probably 
best to cut clover when from one-fourth to one-third of the 
heads are turning brown. Clover should be put in small cocks 
before the leaves get so dry that they are lost in handling, for 
the leaves contain a great deal of splendid feed. After hay has 
stood in cocks one or two days according to the weather, they 
may be opened into a few large flakes. When hay is fairly dry, 
it should be stored in a dry haymow. Even if hay is put into the 
mow when a httle green, it will cure up in good shape, for a bulk 
of hay will produce enough heat to destroy all germs. Hay 
from clover in which all the heads are dead does not give palatable 
hay. According to the 1910 census, the average acreage yield 
was 1.29 tons. Under favorable conditions from 2 to 3 tons 
of hay may be secured from two cuttings of clover. 

Red Clover as Pasture. — Experiments seem to show that 
the greatest amount of food at least cost can be got from some 
hay crops by using them for pasturage. At the Missouri Station 
the following results were obtained from an acre of clover forage. 
The grain fed the swine was corn. 

^ Professor Jordan, Pennsylvania Experiment Station. 



78 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 
Results with Red Clover Forage ^ 













Pounds 


Pounds 


Value of 




Number 


Number 


Pounds 


POXWDS 


Gain 


Grain 


Clover 


Year 


Days 


Hogs 


Gain per 


Grain per 


Accred- 


Per 


Forage per 




Pastured 


PER Acre 


Acre 


Acre 


ited TO 
Forage 


Pound 
Gain 


Acre Pork 
@6^ 


1908 


147 


13 


1372 


4330 


598.2 


3.16 


$35-89 


1910 


119 


9-5 


1050 


2872 


537-2 


2.74 


i2-2i 


Aver- 


133 


II 


I2II 


3601 


567-7 


2-95 


34-05 


age 

















It w^ill be observed that the grazing period v^as almost 4I 
months ; that the number of hogs per acre v^as 1 1 ; that the gain 
per acre forage v^as 567.7 pounds of pork, and that the gain per 
pound grain fed was 2.95 pounds. The value of pork produced 
per acre from the clover forage at 6 cents per pound was $34.05. 
In the experiment the clover was from 6 to 8 inches high when 
the hogs were turned on it. Too close pasturing should not be 
permitted where clover is to be used for forage. 

Some of the advantages of this practice are : 

1. It reduces the cost of pork production. 

2. It harvests the crop in a fairly economic way at little cost. 

3. It tends to maintain the fertility of the soil. 

4. It produces more pork on less land. 

5. W. A. Henry says, " For pigs, clover furnishes sufficient 
food for maintenance so that all the grain fed goes for gain." 

Summary. — Red clover is a native of Persia. It was brought 
to the United States about 1770. It is one of the legume 
crops, and is valuable in improving the soil. Red clover grows 
best in a well-drained, porous, sweet soil. It makes a splendid 
hay or forage crop because of its large protein content. The 



'Bulletin No. no. 



RED CLOVER 



79 



leaves should be carefully saved when hay is made. Red clover 
has proved to be an excellent pasture crop in producing pork. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Red Clover Survey of the District. — Find the number of acres of red 
clover in your school district. Record data as follows. All children may 
help in getting data. 



Red Clover Survey 



Date 



Teacher's Name 



Names of Farmers 



Acres in Farm 



Acres in Clover 



Per Cent of 
Farm in Clover 



Tons of Hay 
PER A. Last Year 



2. Draw and describe red clover seed. 

3. Germination Test of Yellow and Purple Red Clover Seeds. — Make 
a germination test of purple and yellow clover seeds. Count out fifty 
yellow seeds and fifty purple seeds. Make a germination test between 
two blotters laid on a plate to see which will grow best. 

4. To Study the Foreign Seeds in Several Samples of Red Clover Seed. — 
From several samples of clover seed find per cent of foreign seeds. Take 
about one hundred or one hundred fifty seeds and by count find the per- 
cent of weed seeds. 

5. Identify Weed Seeds Found in a Half Dozen Samples of Red Clover 
Seed. — Identify, draw, and describe at least a half dozen weed seeds found 
in samples of clover seed. 

6. Study of the Nodules on Roots of Red Clover. — Dig up a red clover 
plant. Wash off the dirt carefully. Examine and draw the nodules found 
on the roots. 



8o 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



WHITE CLOVER 

White clover is a perennial legume which grows in lawns, 
pastures, fields, and by roadsides in both Europe and America. 
It is propagated by seeds and by runners which root freely at 
each node. The seeds are hard and pass through the digestive 
tract of animals without being damaged. They are reddish yel- 
low, small, heart-shaped, and sometimes lie in the soil several 

years before they germinate. 
White clover is adaptable to 
a wide range of conditions, 
and is, therefore, found in 
almost every part of the 
world. It grows best in a 
fairly moist, sweet, well- 
drained soil. It is desir- 
able in blue grass pastures 
because it grows well in 
midsummer when blue 
grass does not. Another 
reason why it is desirable 
is that it feeds at a greater 
depth and stores nitrogen in the soil. White clover is seldom 
seeded alone ; from 2 to 4 pounds of seed is sown with other 
pasture grasses. Its creeping nature and its proportion of hard 
seeds cause it to become permanently set. Every pasture where 
white clover will grow should contain it, first, because it stores 
nitrogen in the soil ; second, because it furnishes more protein 
to the grass ration ; and, third, because it feeds at a greater 
depth than do most pasture grasses. 

LABORATORY EXERCISE 

1. Identify, draw, and describe white clover seed. 




Fig. 33. — White clover stem. 



RED CLOVER 8i 



ALSIKE CLOVER 



Alsike clover originated in Sweden, near a place named Alsyke, 
from which it gets its name. It is a perennial, which Hves from 
3 to 5 years. It will grow in acid soils and in wet places where 
red clover will not grow. Alsike makes an excellent hay be- 
cause it has a smaller stem, and is more easily cured than red 
clover. When sown in a mixture with other grasses, from 4 to 
6 pounds of seeds are usually sown per acre. It has a white 
pinkish flower, and purple or yellowish green, heart-shaped 
seeds a little larger than white clover seeds. 

LABORATORY EXERCISE 
1. Identify, draw, and describe alsike clover seeds. 



CRIMSON CLOVER 

Crimson clover is an annual legume. It grows only in warmer 
latitudes, and, therefore, is not grown where there are hard 
freezing winters. In the United States it is grown most ex- 
tensively along the Atlantic Coast. Crimson clover stools 
readily. The seeds are larger than those of the rest of the 
clovers, and are a shiny crimson color. The seeds should be 
identified, drawn, and described. 



CHAPTER V 
SOYBEANS 

Origin of the Soybean. — Soybeans are native to Southern 
Asia and were cultivated and improved by the Chinese centuries 
ago. They have been grown in Europe for about a hundred 
years, but were not extensively cultivated in the United States 
until about 1900. 

The Soybean Plant. Soybeans resemble garden peas. They 
grow erect with a branching, bushy hairy stem, which is often 
three and one-half feet in height. The leaves are trifoliate, about 
two-thirds as wide as long. The flowers are white, pink, and 
sometimes purple. The pods are short, containing from i to 3 
oval-shaped, almost round seeds. There are seldom more than 
three seeds in a pod. The roots are composed of a main taproot 
and a few lateral roots, on which are found free nitrogen 
gathering nodules. (See Exercise i.) 

Utility of Soybeans. 

1 . Because soybeans grow erect, they are more easily cultivated 
and harvested. 

2. Soybeans are not as easily injured by frosts as cowpeas, 
and therefore may be grown farther north. 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory 
Exercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

A soybean plant, showing nodules, and the seeds of three or four varieties 
of soybeans. 

82 



SOYBEANS 



83 



3. Because the different varieties of soybeans mature in dif- 
ferent lengths of time, from 75 to 165 days, they may be grown 
from the Canadian country to the Gulf of Mexico. 

4. Soybeans yield a large quantity of good seed, sometimes 
from 12 to 18 bushels. 





Fig. 34. — a. A mature soybean plant, showing the pods. b. Part of a soybean plant. 



5. Soybeans store as much nitrogen in the soil in as short a 
time as any other crop, and store up more protein in the plant 
than cowpeas. 

6. When soybeans and corn are planted together and hogged 
down, soybeans last longer than cowpeas because they are harder 
and their pods do not break open as readily. 

7. The parts of the soybean seeds are held tightly together so 
that they can be threshed without spHtting and shattering as 
much as do cowpeas. 



84 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Varieties of Soybean. — Soybeans vary in size, the amount of 
seed produced, and the time required for maturity. The smaller 
varieties mature in about 75 to 95 days, and produce less growth 
and mature earlier. The medium-sized varieties mature in 95 
to no days. 

The large and late-maturing varieties require from 120 to 165 
days. The characteristics of a few varieties are here itemized. 



Description of a Few Soybean Varieties 



Variety 


Days for Maturity 


Size 


Characters 


Ito San . . . 


110-115 days 


25-30 inches 


Produces average amount 
of seed and hay 


HoUybrook 


125-130 days 


30-38 inches 


Good for forage and seed 
production 


Mikado . . . 


130-135 days 


30-35 inches 


Is a heavy seed producer, 
medium in foliage 


Dwarf Brown . 


go days 


15-18 inches 


Small, scant foliage, and 
little seed 


Mammoth 








Yellow . . 


1 50 days 


35-38 inches 


Foliage abundant, me- 
dium in seed 



There are more than two hundred varieties of soybeans in the 
United States. For the ones adaptable to your locahty write 
to your experiment station. (See Exercise 2.) 

Soybean Culture. — Soybeans should be planted in well-pre- 
pared, firm, warm soil. In the corn states it is best to plant 
soybeans just after corn, preferably from the latter part of 
May to the middle of June. However, under very favorable 
conditions they may be planted up to the middle of July and still 
produce a fairly good crop. The methods of planting and the 
amount of seed sowed vary. If the crop is to be cultivated for 



SOYBEANS 



85 



seed, soybeans should be planted about 2^ to 3 feet apart. If 
forage or hay is wanted, the seed may be drilled so that the rows 
will be from 12 to 18 inches apart. The 
method of planting 2 to 4 soybean seeds 
in each hill of corn when the corn is 
being planted is growing in popularity, 
since it does not decrease the corn yield 
much, and at the same time increases 
the soil fertility and produces more well- 
balanced feed. The amount of seed sown 
varies, of course, with the size of the 
seed and the purpose. If soybeans are 
grown for seed, about 2 to 4 pecks 
will be enough, but if grown for forage 
or hay, from 3 to 5 pecks should be 
sown. If the seed is broadcasted, more 
is needed. Broadcasting is not advisable, 
however. 

Soil inoculation with the proper bac- 
teria is advisable in fields where soybeans 
have never grown. The Agriculture De- 
partment of the University of Missouri 
recommends the following : " A gallon of 
soil taken from among the roots of an 
inoculated crop should be mixed in and 
drilled with every bushel of seed. This 
method of inoculation is simple, safe, and 
sure. When a field is once properly inocu- 
lated, soil from it may be used for inoculating other fields 
where soybeans are sown." 

The methods of harvesting soybeans are similar to those used 
with other legume crops. If harvested for seed, soybeans should 




Fig. 35- — Soybean 
roots, showing free nitro- 
gen gathering tubercles. 



86 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



be cut when the pods begin to ripen. If the crop is allowed to 
mature too much, many of the seeds are lost from spHtting 
and shattering. A regular bean huller is most satisfactory for 
threshing, but the common threshing machine may be used if 
the cylinder is run at half speed by putting on a larger pulley, and 
the rest of the machine run at normal speed. Most of the con- 
cave teeth should first be removed from the thresher. 

When soybeans are harvested for hay, they should be cut when 
the pods are about half developed. If cut much later, many of 
the leaves are lost, and the stems become so woody that their 
feeding value is greatly reduced. In order to save the leaves 
which form the most valuable part of the hay, the crop must be 
handled in a semi-cured condition, put in cocks, and permitted 
to cure a day or two more, when it should be permanently stored. 

The Digestible Nutrients of Soybean Hay 



Corn silage for comparison 
Soybean hay 



Dry 
Matter 


Fat 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Protein 


26.3 
91.4 


0.7 
II. 7 


15.0 
39-2 


I.I 
II. 2 



Nutritive 
Ratio 



I5-I 
3-6 



Soybean hay contains about eleven times as much digestible 
protein as corn silage. Therefore soybeans and corn silage make 
a well-balanced ration. 

Soybeans have also been used as a silage crop very satisfac- 
torily. Two parts of corn and one of soybeans produce a silage 
that makes an almost ideal ration for dairy cattle, growing cattle, 
or for sheep, because it contains proteins, carbohydrates, and 
fats in about the proper proportion. (See Exercises 3 and 4.) 

Uses of Soybeans. — It would be well for our farmers to in- 
vestigate the value of soybeans as a crop. Soybeans are almost 



SOYBEANS 87 

equal in feeding value to cottonseed meal, gluten meal, or low- 
grade tankage. They are fed to cattle, sheep, and swine with 
good results. As a soil builder and a green-manure crop, soybeans 
have scarcely an equal. They may also be used to advantage for 
seed production. In China and Japan soybeans are extensively 
used as household food, as a balance to the rice diet. (See 
Exercise 5.) 

Summary. — Soybeans are a native of Asia, and not until 
recently has their value been realized in the United States. 
Soybeans belong to the legumes, and possess all their advan- 
tages. Soybeans are easily grown, contain a large amount of 
protein, and aid in balancing carbonaceous rations. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Study of Soybean Plant. — Soybean plants should be brought to 
class, and be carefully described in a written composition. 

2. Study of Several Varieties of Soybeans. — The seeds of three or four 
varieties should be provided and be carefully examined and drawn by the 
pupils. 

3. Study of Planting, Harvesting, and Feeding Soybeans. — Have 
pupils tell how soybeans are planted, harvested, and fed upon any farm 
from which they may be able to get the information. 

4. To Study the Chemical Composition of Soybean Hay. — How many 
pounds of digestible protein are produced on an acre if 1.5 tons of soybean 
hay is made? How much digestible protein is contained in a ton and a 
half of corn silage ? Compare a ton of silage and soybean hay in a written 
paragraph. 

5. To Figure Money Value of Soybeans. — If soybeans produce 12 
bushels per acre, how many bushels can be produced on 12.7 acres? What 
are these worth at $ 2.45 per bushel? 



CHAPTER VI 



COWPEAS 



History of Cowpeas. — Cowpeas have been grown in China 
and India for over two thousand years. About the middle of 
the sixteenth century they were introduced 
into Europe, and came into America by way 
of the West Indies the latter part of the 
seventeenth century. They were probably 
first brought to the United States in the 
early part of the eighteenth century. Cow- 
peas are grown extensively except where the 
climate is cold and the soil wet during the 
summer. Although cowpeas are a warm- 
temperature loving plant, they are grown to 
a considerable extent in New York, Ohio, 
Indiana, Missouri, Kansas, and Iowa. 

The Cowpea Plant. — The cowpea is an 
annual legume. It varies in its growth from 
an almost erect upright plant to a trailing 
Fig. 36. — The roots vine. The hay is sometimes difficult to 
ItodTsTwhicTu" handle because the long vines hang together, 
bacteria live that gather xhc author has measured vines of cowpeas 

free nitrogen from the r , 1 o^u J 

air. that were over eleven feet long. Ihe seed 




Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 
The seeds of three or four varieties of cowpeas. 

88 



COWPEAS 



89 



pods are long and contain from 6 to 18 seeds. The leaves have 
three leaflets and look very much like those of the garden bean. 
The roots are more extensive than those of the soybean, having 
a long, deep-penetrating taproot, and an abundance of lateral 
roots. Cowpeas grow on a depleted soil as well as, or better 




Fig. 37. — A cowpea stem, showing leaves and pod. 

than, any other legume, and their power to improve the soil is 
among the first. Cowpeas are adversely sensitive to wet, cold 
conditions. (See Exercise i.) 

Varieties of the Cowpea. — Of the fifty or more varieties of 
cowpeas, there are eight or ten that serve the purposes for which 
cowpeas are grown. The varieties vary in size, length of stems, 
and time required for maturity, and also in tendency toward seed 



90 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



production. The following table gives the characteristics of a 
few varieties. For further information write to the experiment 
station of your state. 

Varieties of the Cowpea 



Variety 


Days required 
FOR Maturity 


Regarding 

ViNING 


Purposes 


New Era . . . 
Clay .... 

Taylor .... 

Whippoorwill 


no to 115 
120 to 125 

100 to no 

115 to 120 


Little 
More 

Less foliage 

Great vines 


Better for seed 

Medium seed and vegeta- 
tion 

Produces a fair amount of 
seeds 

Better for vegetation, hay, 
etc. 



The seeds of the common varieties of the locality should be 
studied so that a knowledge of them may become a part of the 
experience of every country boy and girl. (See Exercises 
2 and 3.) 

The yields of cowpeas for hay and seed vary with the variety, 
but yields of from one and one-half to two tons of hay may be 
expected under average conditions. Cowpeas do not produce 
quite as much seed as soybeans. However, when soybeans yield 
from 15 to 18 bushels per acre, cowpeas will yield from 8 to 12 
bushels. 

Cowpea Culture. — Methods of seeding, cultivating, and har- 
vesting cowpeas are similar to those described for soybeans. 

Uses of Cowpeas. — Cowpeas and soybeans are grown in corn 
as forage crops. When pods begin to turn, sheep may be turned 
in on the forage. Western lambs are often used to utilize corn 
and cowpea fields. In from five to six weeks the lambs will 
fatten and yield to the farmer an average per cent of interest on 



COWPEAS 



91 



his investment. Occasionally there will be losses, but when prac- 
ticed for several years in succession a fair profit is generally 
realized. 




Courtesy College o] Agriculture, Columbia, Mo. Bulletin No. no. 
Fig. 38. — An abundance of forage from cowpeas. Cowpeas fit well into a rotation, having 
the double value of conserving fertility and supplying abundant pasturage. 

Cowpeas with corn as a feed have brought the following returns 
in pork production at the Missouri Station : 

Results with Corn and Cowpea Forage ^ 



Year 


Number 

Days 
Pastured 


Number 

Hogs per 

Acre 


Pounds 

Gain 
per Acre 


Pounds Gain 

Accredited 

Forage 


Value of Forage 

per Acre. Pork 

AT Six Cents 

per Lb. 


1909 . . . 


30 


10 


568 


568 


$34-o8 


1910 . . . 


57 


12 


276 


276 


16.56 


1911 . . 


28 


10 


140 


140 


8.40 


1912 . . . 


24 


24 


314 


314 


18.87 


Average . . 


341 


14 


324-5 


324-5 


19.48 



1 Biillelin no. 



92 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The results were obtained by hogging down corn and cowpeas. 
Besides the return in production of pork, the practice of " hogging 
down corn and cowpeas " is a simple and effective means of pre- 
paring the field for tillage and of adding to its fertility. Can 
you explain this from your study of other leguminous plants, 
— clover and soybeans ? 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Survey of Cowpeas and Soybeans of District. — Find the number of 
acres of cowpeas and soybeans produced in your school district. 

2. Study of Several Varieties of Cowpea Seeds. — Draw the seeds of 
three or four varieties of cowpeas grown in your locality. 

3. A Language Lesson on the Advantages of Cowpeas. — Pupils may 
write three paragraphs on the advantages accruing from the growth of 
cowpeas. 

4. A Problem on the Money Value of Cowpeas. — If 40 acres of cow- 
peas are planted and the yield is 10.6 bushels per acre, what is the money 
value if they sell for $2.65 per bushel? There are 60 pounds in a bushel 
of cowpeas. What is a pound worth at the above rate? 



CHAPTER VII 
ALFALFA 

History of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa is among the oldest of forage 
plants. It originated in Central Asia. The Persians carried 
alfalfa to Greece in 490 B.C., and the Romans carried it to 
Rome in 146 B.C. It was probably carried to Spain by the 
Moors in 711 a.d., and from there it spread to all Europe. The 
Spanish introduced alfalfa into the New World. Cortez took 
it with him into Mexico, and it was introduced into California 
about 1854. Now its distribution is world-wide. 

Importance of Alfalfa. — According to recent reports ^ the 
alfalfa acreage is 7,400,000, and the forage yield per acre is 
2.94 tons, worth $22.94 per acre on irrigated lands, and $16.97 
on unirrigated lands. The irrigated part contained 2,216,000 
acres, or about 30 per cent of the total. 

Alfalfa is important because it produces more feed per acre 
than other hay crops. At the Wisconsin Station, it has been 
found that alfalfa yields 5.4 tons per acre; red clover, 2.3; and 
brome grass, 1.3. Although these are higher yields than can be 
expected under ordinary conditions, still the comparisons are 
accurate. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 
Pint samples of alfalfa seeds. 

^ Census, 19 10. 
93 



94 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

In the following table the protein from several crops per acre 
is given according to data worked out by the New York Experi- 
ment Station : 

Alfalfa 875 pounds protein 

Clover 491 pounds protein 

Oats and peas 350 pounds protein 

Corn, entire crop 300 pounds protein 

Mangels 232 pounds protein 

Timothy 228 pounds protein 

Sugar beets 213 pounds protein 

The importance of alfalfa lies in the fact of its wide adaptabil- 
ity, the total yields it gives, and the large amount of protein it 
produces. (See Exercise i.) 

Uses of Alfalfa. — Alfalfa has all the advantages attributed to 
legume crops, discussed in connection with red clover. As a soil 
builder, as a feed, as to quantity of feed grown on an acre, and 
as to the amount of protein gathered, alfalfa has no superior. 
The preceding table ^ brings out some favorable comparisons 
for alfalfa. 

Alfalfa Soils and Sowing. — Alfalfa thrives on deep, pervious 
soils that admit air and water, and are rich in mineral matter 
especially lime, potash, and phosphorus. Peaty and clay soils 
do not furnish the best conditions for alfalfa. However, when 
clay is tile drained, it may become a good alfalfa soil. Alfalfa 
will not grow in a wet soil, nor in an acid soil. " Alfalfa will not 
stand wet feet," is a correct saying. Where the water line is 
nearer than six feet to the surface, alfalfa should not be sown ; 
and where water occasionally stands on the soil, alfalfa will not 
thrive. Acid soils, which are often due to wet conditions or 
overcropping of corn and wheat which need large quantities of 
lime, will not support alfalfa. Wet soils should be drained and 

> Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 



ALFALFA 



95 



acid soils should be made neutral by the addition of ground 
limestone. 

The seed bed for alfalfa should be well prepared. It is impor- 
tant that alfalfa have a firm seed bed such as is desirable for 
wheat production. The seed bed should be free from weeds ; 
the soil culture a year or two before alfalfa is sown should be of 
such a nature that the weeds are well in check. The reason for 
sowing alfalfa in the fall is simply to give it a start of the weeds 
the following spring. From lo to 15 pounds of good seed 
should be sown to an acre. (See Exercises 2, 3, and 4.) 

Reasons for Alfalfa Failures. — Failure of an alfalfa crop may 
be caused by one or more of the following conditions : 

1. Wet, impervious soils. ' 

2. Sour, acid soils. 

3. Lack of seed-bed prep- 
aration. Alfalfa will not 
grow in a soil unless the soil 
is well packed and free from 
weeds. 

4. Soil lacking the bac- 
teria which aid alfalfa grow- 
ing. Putting one hundred 
fifty to two hundred pounds 
of soil from a field where al- 
falfa or sweet clover has been 
growing will inoculate the 
soil with the proper bacteria. 

5. Overcrowding weeds. 

6. Cutting alfalfa too late in autumn. A growth of 5 or 6 
inches in fall protects alfalfa from freezing, and holds the snows. 

7. Close grazing, which soon kills alfalfa. 
(See Exercise 5-) 




Fig. 39. 



Alfalfa roots, showing normal 
nodules. 



96 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Essentials in Alfalfa Growing. — To raise a good crop of alfalfa, 
it is necessary to remember the following essentials to its produc- 
tion : 

1 . Alfalfa thrives on 
a deep, porous, sweet 
soil. 

2. The seed bed 
must be well prepared 
and firm. 

3. Frequent cutting 
aids the alfalfa plant. 

4. Soil inoculation 
never injures alfalfa 
and generally helps its 
growth. 

5. A good fall growth 
should be left for win- 
ter protection. 

6. Lime, potash, and 
phosphorus are abso- 
lutely essential to al- 
falfa production. 

7. Weeds and al- 
falfa will not grow 
together. The alfalfa 

Eradicate 




Courtesy U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 
Not inoculated 



Inoculated 
Fig. 40. — Alfalfa showing the effects of soil 
inoculation 

must be given a clean right of way if it is to grow, 
the weeds first. 

8. Decaying organic matter or well-rotted manure is an excel- 
lent fertilizer for alfalfa. 

9. A good quality of seeds should be used. 

10. Alfalfa should be cultivated at least once each season, 
with a disk or a spring tooth harrow. This cultivation may 



ALFALFA 



97 



ordinarily best follow the second cutting. This cultivation 
destroys the grass and weeds, loosens the surface soil, thereby 
conserving the soil moistures, and causes the alfalfa to branch 
more. 

Returns per Acre of Alfalfa and Other Crops 





Yield per 
Acre 


Matter 


Digestible 
Crude Pro- 
tein 


Digestible 

Carbohydrates 

AND Fats 


Net Energy 
IN Therms 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 




Alfalfa hay 


5040 


4632 


529 


2143 


1734 


Clover hay 


2580 


2185 


183 


1080 


896 


Timothy . . 


2440 


2118 


68 


1 106 


819 


Corn ears and 












stover . . 


3440 


2604 


140 


1824 


1762 



This table shows a much higher yield, more dry matter, and a 
great deal more digestible protein in alfalfa hay than in clover, 
timothy hay, com ears and stover. The high protein content 
of alfalfa gives it a high feeding value. 

Alfalfa as a forage crop for swine has a great growing and 
feeding value. There is perhaps no forage crop which will 
produce as much pork per acre as will alfalfa, since this crop is 
high in mineral matter and high in protein. It is therefore not 
necessary to feed any grain in addition to corn when swine are 
fed on alfalfa forage. In pasturing alfalfa, care should be taken 
not to pasture too closely as the crop does not seem to be able 
to stand heavy foraging. 

From the following table it will be seen that the alfalfa 
forage was accredited 591.8 pounds of pork to the acre. This 
at 6 cents per pound is worth $35.51. This was a very good 
record for an acre of alfalfa in making pork. 



98 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Results with Alfalfa. (One Year's Trial) ^ 

1. Number of days pastured 163 

2. Number of hogs per acre 10.3 

3. Gain per acre 1 310.0 pounds 

4. Grain fed per acre 4022.0 pounds 

5. Gain accredited to forage 591-8 pounds 

6. Grain fed per pound gain 3.07 pounds 

7. Value of forage with pork at six cents . . . $3 5- 51 

Alfalfa balances the ration. In Figure 41 one pig was fed 
corn in a dry pen for 180 days; the other pig was provided 

corn and alfalfa pasture 
for 80 days, and then 
corn and alfalfa hay for 
100 days. Although the 
pigs were practically the 
same size at the begin- 
ning of the experiment, 
at the end of the period 
the pig that was fed 
corn alone averaged 75 
pounds and the other 
averaged 185 pounds. 
The bones of the pig fed 
corn and alfalfa were 
about twice the size of 
the bones of the pig fed 
corn alone. The pig fed 
corn alone made gains 
at a cost of $31.49 a 
hundred pounds, while 
the other pig made one 
hundred pounds gain at 

* Bulletin no, Missouri Station. 




Courtesy Kansas Exp. Station. 



Fig. 41. — Corn and alfalfa were a fairly good 
ration. Corn alone did not give good results. 
Alfalfa balances the ration if fed with corn. 



ALFALFA 



99 



a cost of $6.68. This indicates that protein substances are 
necessary for bone formation and growth. 

Cost anb Feed to Produce One Thousand Pounds of Beep ^ 



Lot I 
Lot 2 



What was Fed 



Prairie hay 
Grain 
Alfalfa 
Grain 



Amount 



16,760 lb. 

3,050 lb. 
10,000 lb. 

1,620 lb. 



Cost 



?45.io 

528.20 



Alfalfa plus grain produced one thousand pounds of beef at a 
cost of $28.20 ; and prairie hay and grain at a cost of $45.10. 

Making Alfalfa Hay. — In order to get the best results with 
alfalfa, two points in its harvesting should be observed. 

I. The crop should be cut when the new shoots on the crowns 
of the plants are beginning to grow. If cutting is delayed until 
these new shoots are cut off, the next crop will be greatly re- 
duced. Maximum yields can be had only when. the alfalfa is 
cut at the proper time. 

Some have said that alfalfa should be cut when one-tenth of the 
plants are in bloom. This is a fair rule to follow, but the rule 
pertaining to the protection of the new growth is better. 

The Stage at which to Cut Alfalfa ^ 



Stage of Growth 


Hay Worth per Ton 


Beef Pounds Produced 


When one-tenth in 

bloom 

When in full bloom 
When one-half blooms 
have fallen 


^55-35 
4.90 

4-35 


706 
562 

490 



^ Bulletin, Nebraska Station. 



^ Utah Experiment Station. 



lOO 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The protein content of alfalfa has been found to be : ^ 

When one-tenth in bloom 18.5 per cent 

When one-half in bloom 17.2 per cent 

When in full bloom 14.4 per cent 

2. The leaves of alfalfa contain from 75 to 80 per cent of the 
total protein of the alfalfa plant. For this reason every pre- 
caution should be taken in harvesting alfalfa to preserve and keep 
the leaves of the plant. Cutting the hay at the proper time and 
handling it in a semi-cured condition, will conserve the leaves. 
" Make hay while the sun shines," but do not let the sun take 
all the moisture out of the alfalfa stem and leaves before the 
alfaha is put into small cocks. The following day the cocks 
may be opened into large flakes and left to dry some more. 
Small caps of canvas placed over the cocks will aid in getting the 
crop cured properly. When well cured put the alfalfa hay into 
a barn. 

The Composition of Alfalfa Stems and Leaves 





Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Ash 


Protein 


Crude Fiber 


Stem . 
Leaves 


0.81 

2.96 


27.79 
41.16 


4.99 
14.48 


6.35 
23-33 


54-33 
13-15 



If alfalfa is too ripe before it is cut, many of the leaves are lost 
in harvesting and many young shoots on the crown are clipped. 
Both points should be carefully observed in alfalfa harvesting. 

Stunmary. — Alfalfa is a native of Asia. Although it was not 
introduced into the United States until recent years, there are now 
over seven million acres devoted to this crop. Alfalfa thrives 
on a deep, porous, sweet soil. Liming and inoculating the 
soil are frequently essential in securing results in its production. 
Cutting alfalfa at the proper time is important in growing the 

' The Kansas Experiment Station. 



ALFALFA 



lOI 



crop, and in getting the best quality hay. As a forage crop for 
swine it has great growing and feeding value. With corn it 
balances the ration. As a feed for milk production ii pounds 
are equal to lo pounds of wheat bran. Where alfalfa thrives it 
scarcely has an equal in its feed-producing capacity. Its growth 
should be encouraged where it thrives. (See Exercise 6.) 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Alfalfa Survey of the District. — Find the number of acres in alfalfa 
in the district. AU the pupils aid in the survey. Every farmer should be 
included in this record, even if he has no alfalfa. Record as follows : 



Alfalfa Survey 



Date 



Teacher's Name 



Names of Farmers 



Acres of Land 
ON Farm 



Number of 

Acres 

Alfalfa 



Land, Per Cent 
IN Alfalfa 



Alfalfa, Cut 

How Many 

Times 



2. Examine and draw alfalfa seeds. 

3. To Examine Alfalfa Seed for Adulterants and Weed Seeds. — Ex- 
amine alfalfa seed to see if it contains weed seeds. What kind of weed 
seeds did you find in alfalfa ? 

4. To Plant and Grow Alfalfa with Different Soil Treatment. — School 
children should plant some alfalfa on school ground. If some of it can be 
treated with different fertilizer, some limed and some inoculated, the test, 
if carefully taken care of, may become of real service to the farmers of the 
district. 

5. To Study Alfalfa Roots. — If alfalfa is growing in the locality, it will 
be interesting to dig up some plants to find the length of the roots, and also 
to examine the nodules on the roots. Draw them. 

6. Comparison of Bran and Alfalfa Hay. — Dairymen claim that ii 
pounds of good alfalfa hay is worth as much as lo pounds of wheat bran 
for milk production. Compare the two feeds in digestible composition and 
price. (See table on page io8.) 



CHAPTER VIII 
PASTURES 

If the amount of pasture grasses that are eaten, digested, as- 
similated, and manufactured into beef, pork, milk, horse flesh 
energy, and into poultry products, could be known, the amount 
would compare well with that secured by feeding dry feeds. 
Many a practical farmer knows that an acre of good pasture 
may be converted by the right kind of cattle into one hundred 
to two hundred fifty pounds of beef per season. The dairyman 
realizes his biggest profits in the spring of the year. Pastures 
generally receive Httle attention and care, yet the products from 
the pasture yield large returns annually. (See Exercise i.) 

Kentucky Blue Grass. — Kentucky blue grass is the most 
important pasture grass in America. It grows best in a moist 
limestone, rather compact, firm soil. It grows in every section 
and state of our nation, but it thrives best in the regions where 
corn, oats, timothy, and wheat are grown. It is shallow rooted, 
and therefore does not do well in a dry, or porous loose soil. 
Blue grass increases or reproduces by underground stems and is 
very hardy. Tramping and grazing seem to aid in causing this 
wonderful plant to yield the best results. 

White Clover. — This is an important plant for use in pastures. 
It supplements blue grass, just as red clover supplements timothy. 
White clover grows from seeds, and its stem, unlike the other 
clovers, spreads out on the ground and takes root. White clover 
will grow on very poor soils where other clovers fail. Its growth 
should be encouraged. 



PASTURES 



103 



Fig. 42. — A white clover plant grown from a single seed, showing spreading habit. 

Mixtures of Grasses and Clover. — Blue grass, red top, white 
clover, and alsike are a fine combination for pastures. In seed- 
ing a pasture 3 pounds of red clover may be included to good 
advantage. The following is a fair mixture to sow per acre : 

Blue grass 4 pounds 

Red top 3 pounds 

White clover 3 pounds 

Alsike i^ pounds 

There are several advantages in having a mixture of grasses 
and clovers for pastures. Among the more important are 
these : 

1. The clover will gather free nitrogen and store it in the soil. 
Nitrogen is one of the most essential elements making for luxuri- 
ant vegetative growth. 

2. Mixtures of plants grow at different seasons. Blue grass 
grows well in early spring and in the late fall, but in dry, hot 
midsummer it does not thrive so well. White clover and alsike 
are in their glory in hot midsummer. 

3. The mixture of plants is capable of converting more soil 
plant foods into plant tissue because their root systems feed in 



I04 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



different layers of the soil. 
The clovers have long tap- 
roots. The grasses feed at 
the surface. 

4. The mixture above sug- 
gested will fit different types 
of soil. Alsike and red top 
will grow in wet, cold acid 
places, and blue grass and 
white clover will do better 
in sweet, medium moist soils. 

5. A mixture of grasses 
will furnish a variety of feeds, 

and will have a greater capacity for producing the product 
desired. The proportion of protein is increased by the clovers. 

Digestible Parts of Pasture Plants 




Courtesy 0/ International Harvester Co. 



Fig. 43. — Grasses feed near the surface of the 
soil, and legume roots feed much deeper. 



Plant 


Dry 

Matter 


Fat 


Carbohydrates 


Protein 


Nutritive 
Ratio 


Blue grass . 
Red top . . 
White clover 
Alsike . . 


31.6 

39-3 
21.8 

21-5 


0.6 
0.6 

0.5 
0.4 


14.8 

20.0 

9.6 

10.4 


2-3 
1.9 

3-1 

2-3 


I : 7.0 
i: II.3 

1:3-5 
I : 4.9 



The narrow nutritive ratio of white clover and alsike indicate 
the relative high protein content they contain. 

There is no one pasture plant that is better than blue grass in 
beef production, but the above mixture is probably better. 
That food production of a mixture of grass and clover per acre 
is greater remains unquestioned. 

Management of Pastures. — Weeds of various kinds, " like 



PASTURES 



105 



dogs among sheep in the night," will appear and take for them- 
selves a large part of the soil moisture and soil foods. They 
reproduce so abundantly that they should be cut twice every 
year before they mature seeds. Sheep and goats help to renovate 
a pasture of weeds. If a mower is used, it should be set high 
enough so that the grass itself is not injured. (See Exercise 2.) 

There is an old German adage which states, '* The eye of the 
master fattens cattle." In the fattening of cattle, it has been 
found a good practice to shift the cattle from poorer to better 
grass as the fattening process continues. If blue grass is to 
furnish self-cured grazing herbage for the winter, it should not 
be pastured in late fall. 

Early spring pasturing, before the roots have had a chance to 
grow and get well set, cripples the growth of grass the entire 
season. It will be found economical 
to let it get a good growth in the 
spring. Any growing plant will manu- 
facture the most food when it has the 
largest amount of green leaf surface. 
On the other hand, when grass becomes 
too large, the part near the surface 
of the soil becomes bleached. The 
bleached part is like a dead limb on a 
tree ; it has ceased to manufacture foods 
and has become functionless. Such a 
condition indicates that the maximum 
good is not to be derived from the 
grass. On the other hand, turning to 
pasture too early in the spring before 
the grass has had a chance to grow and 
expose the maximum amount of green leaf surface to the sun, is 
wasteful because the green chlorophyll bodies (the real starch 




Fig. 44. — The amount of 
food, starches especially, that 
a plant can manufacture de- 
pends directly upon the amount 
of leaf surface exposed to the 
sun. 



io6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

factories of the plant) are small in number and therefore are 
unable to manufacture the maximum quantity of foods. 

Pasture grasses when small furnish very little feed, because the 
grass is watery, and it has not had time sufficient to manufacture 
much plant. More than that, if grass is pastured early, the 
roots are stunted and do not do their best work the entire season. 
It is good farm practice to let the pastures get a good growth 
before stock is turned upon them. 

During the months of high temperature, blue grass dries up 
to a considerable extent. Some farmers have found it profitable 
to provide a small feed of corn silage for their cows during these 
months. 

Pastures need fertilizing occasionally. Barnyard manures, 
or a small amount of a nitrogenous top-dressing, may prove 
economic. From 150 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre 
applied in early spring when the grass begins to grow, and three 
or four weeks before the stock is turned on in the spring, will 
increase the growth considerably. Other nitrogenous fertiHzers 
may be had from the packing concerns. 

Summary. — The beef, dairy, mutton, pork, and poultry 
products derived from pastures are large. Blue grass, red top, 
white clover, and alsike clover are our most important pasture 
plants. Growing a mixture of grasses and legumes has many 
advantages. Keeping pastures free from weeds, and permitting 
the grass to get a good start in early summer, are important in 
the management of pastures. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Study of the Importance of Pastures. — Find the number of acres of 
land in pasture grasses in your school district. 

2. Study of Weeds in Some Pastures. — ^ Go to a near-by pasture and see 
how many and what kind of weeds there are growing in it. 



CHAPTER IX 
FEEDS AND FEEDING 

The matter of feeding well and economically is of the 
greatest importance to every farmer. Economic feeding means 
the most nourishing food at the lowest cost. It is often hard 
to discover the most satisfactory feeds for beef steers, sheep, 
swine, or poultry. We shall study the subject briefly here. 
For a fuller treatment of the matter refer to bulletins and text- 
books. 

Composition of Feeds. — Feeds are chemically composed of 
water, carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and ash. Water in plants is 
an important part of the feed stuff. Green grasses contain more 
than three-fourths water and all dry feeds contain about one-tenth 
water. Blue grass is about three-fourths water. The chemical 
formula for water is H2O. 

Carbohydrates comprise the starches and sugars in plants. 
The elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen make up the carbo- 
hydrates. If we cut a wheat or corn kernel in two parts, we 
shall see a white substance that is starch. The flour of wheat 
is nearly all starch. Dry ear corn and wheat kernels contain 
about three-fifths starch. The chemical formula for starch is 
CeHioOs and for cane sugar it is C12H22O11. Plants are largely 
composed of carbohydrates, and the cells of plants are on a 
carbohydrate basis. 

Fats are found in many grains. Wheat is 2.1 per cent fat; 
cowpeas and soybeans contain 2.6 and 2.8 per cent of fat, re- 
spectively. Fats are composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen, 

107 



io8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



and oxygen. The chemical formula for stearin, one of the fats 
in butter, is (C7H3502)3C3H5. 



Digestible Composition of Some Feed Stuffs ^ 
(All analyses are given) 







Pounds 


OF Digestible Nutrients in 


00 Lb. 




TriTAT 














1 (JlAl. 

Dry 

Matter 


Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat 


Total 


Nutritive 

Ratio is as 

1 is to 


Corn products 














Dent corn .... 


89.5 


7-5 


67.8 


4.6 


85.7 


10.4 


Gluten feed . . . 


91.2 


I5-I 


57-8 


4.8 


83.7 


4-5 


Germ oil meal . . . 


92.2 


lO.O 


50-3 


lO.O 


82.8 


7-3 


Wheat products 














Wheat 


89.8 


9.2 


67.5 


1-5 


80.1 


7-7 


Bran 


89.9 


12.5 


41.6 


3-0 


60.9 


3-9 


Middlings .... 


89.6 


13-4 


46.2 


4-3 


69-3 


4.2 


Oats 














Oats 


90.8 


9-7 


52.1 


3-8 


70.4 


6.3 


Oat straw .... 


88.5 


I.O 


42.6 


0.9 


45-6 


44.6 


Hays 














Timothy .... 


88.4 


3-0 


42.8 


1.2 


48.5 


15-2 


Alfalfa 


QI.4 


10.6 


39-0 


0.9 


51-6 


3-9 


Red clover .... 


87.1 


7.6 


39-3 


1.8 


50-9 


5-7 


Cowpea 


90.3 


I3-I 


33-7 


1.0 


49.0 


2.7 


Soybean 


91.4 


II. 7 


39-2 


1.2 


53.6 


3-6 


Grasses 














Blue grass .... 


31.6 


2.i 


14.8 


0.6 


18.S 


7.0 


White clover . . . 


21.8 


3-1 


9.6 


0-5 


13-8 


3-5 


Red top 


39-3 


1.9 


20.0 


0.6 


23-3 


II-3 


Meat products 














Tankage .... 


92.5 


48.1 


0.0 


13-7 


78.9 


0.6 


Meat scraps . . . 


94.0 


37-0 


0.0 


II. 


61.8 


0.7 


Cow's milk 


13-6 


i-i 


4.9 


4-3 


17.9 


4-4 


Skim milk, gravity . . 


9.6 


3-1 


4.6 


0.9 


9-7 


2.1 


Buttermilk .... 


9.4 


3-4 


4.9 


0.1 


8.4 


1-5 


Corn silage .... 


26.3 


I.I 


15.0 


0.7 


17.7 


I5-I 


Cottonseed meal, good . 


92.1 


31.6 


25.6 


7.8 


74.8 


1.4 



Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



109 



Proteins are also found in plant tissue. Dent corn has 10 per 
cent protein ; wheat, 12.5 per cent ; and oats, 12.5 per cent. Pro- 
tein substances contain the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
and nitrogen, of which "nitrogen" is the most important. The 
chemical formula of a protein is C7H8N4O2. The protein sub- 
stances in grain crops is called gluten ; in legumes, legumen ; in 
eggs, albumen ; in meat, myosin ; and in milk, casein. The 
cell of animal tissue is on a protein basis. 

The ash substances of feeding stuffs comprise the elements 
sulphur, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, 
sodium, silicon, and chlorine, which remain after a substance 
has been burned. Dent corn contains 1.5 per cent ash material ; 
wheat, 1.9 per cent ; and oats, 3.5 per cent. 

The general facts of this table have an important bearing 
upon feeding, and the study of the composition of feed stuffs 
has practical value. 

Composition of Animal Bodies and their Products ' 





Water 


Dry 

Matter 


Protein 


Fats 


Ash 


Sugar 


(Approximately) 

Beef steer 

Fat pig 

Fat lamb 

Milk 

Eggs (edible part) . . 


53-0 
49.0 
47.8 
86.4 
74.0 


47.0 

Si-o 
55-2 
13.6 
26.0 


13-5 
12.0 
12.3 

3-5 
14.9 


34-0 

40.0 

28.S 

4.4 


3.60 

2.25 
2.94 
0.7 
0.8 


0.0 
0.0 
0.0 
5-0 
0.0 



The study of the above table in comparison to the preceding 
one brings out the similarity of the composition of animal bodies 
and their products to the composition of plants and their products. 



^ Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 



no 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



This similarity of the chemical composition of animal bodies and 
plants may be compared by studying the following diagram : 



10.2 



$.2 



8.6 



DENT CORN, GRAIN \ 10.5 

WHEAT. GRAIN 

OAT, GRAIN 

BRAN 

ALFALFA 

"TIMOTHY. 

CORN SILAGE 

GREEN BLUE GRASS 

WELL FED 0X._ 

WELL FED SWINE. 

BODY OF CHICKEN 

MILK 

BUTTER 

HEN'S EGG 



?^ 



10.1 6.3 16 



m 



8.6 i|&ll9 



11.6 4.9 



li J illl 



-J ,- 2.1 



23.5 




W^(./^/.<A 



WATER 
ASH 
I PROTEIN 



CARBOHYDRATE 
FAT 



From the above diagram it may be seen that plant and animal tissue is somewhat 
similar in chemical composition. It may be noted, however, that plants contain a great 
deal of carbohydrate material, and that animals contain no carbohydrates. On the other 
hand, it may be observed that animal bodies contain a greater amount of protein material 
in proportion to the total dry matter found in animal tissue than is found in plant tissue. 
There is generally a greater proportion of fat in animal bodies than in plant bodies. Corn 
has 4.6 per cent fat, and a well-fed pig has 22.5 per cent. Corn has 67.8 per cent carbo- 
hydrates, and the well-fed pig has none. As we shall see in a toUowing paragraph, the carbo- 
hydrates are used for producing heat energy and fat. The diagram deserves close stud '. 
The figures show the percentage of nutrients found in each article given. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING iii 

Function of Food Materials. — Water is used to build up body 
tissue. About 50 per cent of the body is made up of water. 
Milk and eggs are composed of 86 and 74 per cent of water, re- 
spectively. It also helps to dissolve other foodstuffs, and helps to 
carry them through the digestive canal. Water, through perspira- 
tion and otherwise, relieves the body of waste material. Through 
perspiration it aids in equalizing the temperature of the body. 

The Carbohydrates, the starches and sugars, have two functions : 

1. To provide heat energy to the body. (Carbon, hydrogen, 

and oxygen, of which they are composed, are good heat 
producers.) 

2. To provide fat. Since the composition of carbohydrates 

and fats is so similar, little change is necessary to con- 
vert a carbohydrate into fat. Every farmer knows that 
starches and sugars are good fatteners. 

The Fats, often defined as concentrated carbohydrates, have 
the same function as the carbohydrates. In cold regions more 
fats are fed because they furnish more heat. A pound of fat 
furnishes 2j times as much heat as a pound of carbohydrates. 

The Proteins build bone, muscle, connective tissue, horn, 
hoofs, skin, and hair. The protein foods are the only source of 
the protein in the body. Proteins supply nitrogen, which cannot 
be supplied by the carbohydrates. Protein feeds make for 
growth, vigor, quality of skin, and hair, and are essential to milk 
and egg production and work. (Fig. 41, p. 98.) 

The Ash Elements in foodstuffs form bony tissues, help the 
blood, and aid digestion. The ash elements are important, but 
are not usually considered in figuring the nutritive ratios of 
feeding stuffs. 

Food Requirements of Animals. — Food requirements vary 
with different conditions of work and temperatures ; a few state- 
ments are applicable generally. The best physiologists teach us 



112 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



that the human body needs about eight times as much carbon- 
aceous materials as protein substances. Agriculturists tell us 
that the following are the food requirements of different animals 
under the different conditions given : 





Part Protein to Carbohydrates in 

Nutritive Ratio for Different 

Animals under Different Conditions 


Horses at light work 

Horses at heavy work 

Milch cows giving milk 

Fattening steer 

First period 




7.0 
6.0 

6.8 
6.8 


Second period 

Third period 

Fattening swine 

For egg production 

For growing fowls 

For fattening chickens 


S-5 

S-2 

5-5 
4.8 

4 
7-5 



Finding the Nutritive Ratio. — The nutritive ratio of a feed 
is found by multiplying the digestible fats by 2I, adding the 
digestible carbohydrates, and dividing the result by the diges- 
tible proteins. To illustrate, corn has this composition : Fats 
4.6 per cent, carbohydrates 67.8 per cent, protein 7.5 per cent. 

4.6X2^ + 67.8 



Then the N. R. of corn 



7-5 



or 10.4 
Likewise the nutritive 



or the nutritive ratio of corn is i : 10.4 
ratio of any feed or food may be found. 

Balancing a Ration. — A milk cow requires a ration whose 
nutritive ratio is as i : 6.8. Since the N. R. of corn is i : 10.4, it is 
evident that it contains too much carbohydrate material. There- 
fore if corn is fed, some feed that contains more protein must be 
added. Alfalfa is richer in protein than corn. Let us see what 
the N. R. of the following ration is. 



FEEDS AND FEEDING 



113 





Fats 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Protein 


10 lb. alfalfa hay = yV of 100 lb., or 

5 lb. corn = 2V ^^ i°° ^b., or 
20 lb. corn silage = ^ of 100 lb., or 

Total 


.09 

•23 
.14 

.46 


3-90 
340 
3.00 

10.30 


1.06 

•37 
.22 

1.65 









N R = 46X_^idiio^ ^ 5 g 
1.65 
or the N. R. of the above ration is i : 6.8. 

A balanced ration is one in which the protein, carbohydrates, 
fats, and ash materials are fed in proper proportion. The needs 
of the animal, of course, must be taken into consideration in 
balancing a ration. 

Summary. — The question of properly and economically 
feeding farm animals is one of the most difiticult and important 
farm problems. A careful study of the result desired will be a 
help in providing the best feeds. The feed requirements of 
animals vary with work and conditions. Thus a horse at heavy 
work requires more protein than one that is doing light work. 
The feeds should be properly balanced so that the correct nutri- 
tive ratio is provided. (See Exercises below.) 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Find the Cost of Rations. — Find the cost per ton, and per one 
hundred pounds, of each of the feeds fed to at least three kinds of animals. 

Also find the number of pounds of each of the feeds fed to some farm 
animal, and find the cost of the ration for one day. 

2. Comparison of a Few Feeds. — Compare closely the composition of 
alfalfa and bran ; silage and alfalfa ; corn and wheat ; milk and skim 
milk ; tankage and cottonseed meal. Compare the feeding value of each 
pair of feeds suggested. 



CHAPTER X 
THE HORSE 

Importance of Horses. — The value of the horses in the United 
States is greater than the value of cattle, sheep, and swine com- 
bined. The number, value per head, and total value of all horses, 
all cattle, swine, and sheep follows : ^ 





Number in U. S. 


Average Value 


Total Value 


Horses, mules, asses, and 








burros 


24,148,580 


^108.59 


32,622,180,170 


All cattle 


61,803,866 


24.26 


1,499,523,607 


Swine 


58,185,676 


6.86 


399,338,308 


Sheep 


39,644,046 


4.44 


232,841,585 



From this table it may be observed that the value of all horses 
is about one-half billion dollars greater than the value of all 
cattle, swine, and sheep. 

Contrary to the opinion of some, horses and mules have not de- 
creased in numbers the last five years. According to the United 
States Yearbooks of Agriculture, there were an average of 
21,179,000 horses and mules in the United States during the 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this Chapter are : 

Two draft and two light horses to judge ; a saddle horse ; and a five foot 
measuring tape. 

^ igio Census Report. 
114 



THE HORSE 



115 



five years from 1907 to 191 1 inclusive, and for the five years 
1912 to 1916 inclusive there were 21,769,000 horses and mules 
in the United States. This shows that there are more horses 
and mules in the United States now than ever before. Below 
is a Ust of the states in which is found the largest number.^ They 
have more than half of all the horses and mules in the United 
States. Can you give a reason for this ? 



0% 



3% 



G% 



9% 



TEXAS 


1,925,000 






8.4% 


IOWA 

ILLINOIS 

MISSOURI 

KANSAS 

NEBRASKA 

OKLAHOMA 

INDIANA 

OHIO 

MINNESOTA 

REST OF U.S. 


1,638,000 

1.628,000 

1,419,000 

1,152,000 

1,127,000 

1,027,000 

935,000 

925.000 

850,000 






^ 6.5% 
% 


■ 7.6% 
17.5% 


42.5% 


^■■H 4.0% 
^^m 3.9% 








Graph 


6. The leading state 


, in horse and mule pr 


eduction. 





A Few Essentials in Judging Horses. — A good judge of 
horses must be a close observer, quick to see deviations from a 
correct conformation. He must know the different breed char- 
acteristics, and be able to tell the age of a horse, capable of 
detecting blemishes and unsoundnesses of horses, and of passing 
judgment upon the above points. Discussions of the things 
which will enable the pupil and farmer to improve themselves in 
putting a proper estimate on horses follow. 



^ United States Yearbook of Agriculture. 



ii6 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The Parts of a Horse. — The skeleton of a horse is the frame- 
work upon which the conformation, action, and other important 
features of a horse largely depend. Each type has features that 
are distinctive ; for instance, the draft horse has a larger frame 




Fig. 4S. — The parts of a horse. 



I. Muzzle; 2. nostrils; 3. face; 4. eye; 5. forehead; 6. ear; 7. neck; 8. crest; 9. withers; 
10. back; 11. loin; 12. hip; 13. croup; 14. tail; 15. thigh; 16. quarter; 17. gaskin or lower 
thigh; 18. hock; 19. stifle; 20. flank; 21. ribs; 22. tendons; 23. fetlocks; 24. pastern; 25. foot; 
26. heel of foot; 27. cannon; 28. knee; 29. forearm; 30. chest; 31. arm; 32. shoulder; 33. throat 
latch; A. thoroughpin; B. curb; C. bog and blood spavin; D. bone spavin; E. splint; F. wind- 
gall; G. cappel elbow; H. poll evil. 

and the bones are heavier. The pasterns are generally shorter 
and thicker than are the pasterns of the light horse. 

The form of the skeleton affects the action. There are three 
or four important points considered in action ; namely, length of 
stride, elasticity, trueness, and energy of action. Length of 



THE HORSE 



117 



stride is to some extent dependent upon the length and oblique- 
ness of shoulder and pastern. Straight shoulders and pasterns 
give the horse a short stride, with heavy concussion, conducive 
to blemishes. Elasticity and springiness are impossible with a 
straight shoulder and pastern. Trueness of action is dependent, 
to a large degree, upon the attitude of the legs. If the legs are 
straight, the action will be straight and true. 




Fig. 46. — The upper four pictures show correct conformation that gives strength and 
trueness of action ; the lower pictures illustrate incorrect conformation, which is conducive 
to poor action. 

If from the front the knees are in or out, or if the front feet 
set in or out, the action cannot be straight and true. Also if 
the hocks are in, as they often are, and the rear feet are out, the 
action will be untrue. The action of a horse is largely dependent 
upon the conformation of the skeleton. 

How to Tell the Age of a Horse. — Horses have two sets of 
teeth, a temporary and a permanent set. The temporary teeth 
make their appearance during the first and second months of 
the colt's life. They are small, very white, and soft. They 
change as follows : The middle incisors come out when the colt 
is two and one-half or three years old, and the permanent ones 



ii8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Lower front teeth at three years of age. 
Two center permanent teeth up. 




Lower front teeth at four years of 
age. Four center permanent teeth 
up. 




Lower front teeth at five years of age. 
All permanent teeth up. 




Lower front teeth at six years of age. 
Cups out in center pair. 




Lower front teeth at seven years of 
age. Cups out of intermediate pair 
of incisors. 




Lower front teeth at eight years 
of age. Cups all out. 




Upper front tcclh at nine years of age. 
Cups out of center pair. 




Upper front teeth at ten years of ; 
Cups out of intermediate pair. 



Fig. 47. 



THE HORSE 



119 



take their place. The intermediate incisors above and below 
disappear when the horse is three and one-half or four years old, 
and permanent ones take their place. At four and one-half or 
five years the corner incisors disappear, and the permanent ones 
take their place. At five, the permanent teeth are all present 
and the horse is said to have a full mouth. The permanent 
teeth are larger, darker in color, and of a harder texture than the 
milk teeth. To tell the age of a colt under five years notice 




Upper front teeth at twenty- 
Upper front teeth at eleven one years of age. Note the 
years of age. Cups all out. triangular form of the teeth. 

Fig. 48. 



Side view at live years 
of age. 



which temporary incisors are gone, and which ones are still 
present. 

To tell the age of a horse after he is five, observe the dis- 
appearance of the cups in the teeth. The cups in the teeth of 
the lower jaw disappear first. The cups in the middle two 
lower incisors are gone when the horse is six years old ; the cups 
in the intermediate lower incisors are gone at seven ; and the 
cups of the lower corner incisors are gone at eight. 

The cups in the upper jaw disappear from the middle, inter- 
mediate, and corner incisors at the ages of nine, ten, and eleven 
years, respectively. The exact time at which the cups of horses' 
teeth disappear depends upon the texture of the teeth, the kind 



I20 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

of feed, and the disposition of the horse. At twelve the horse 
has a smooth mouth. After twelve the age of a horse cannot be 
accurately told. Harper says/ " After a horse has passed the 
twelfth year, a year or two matters Httle. Much depends on 
the individuality of the animal, as some animals are worth more 
at fifteen than others at twelve. The value of a horse should 
then be determined from general appearances and activity 
rather than upon age." (See Exercise i.) 

Blemishes, Unsoundness, and Diseases of Horses. — Blemishes 
are defects which do not interfere with the functioning of the 
part affected. Unsoundnesses do interfere with the functioning 
of the part affected. A wire cut may be a blemish only, because 
it may not interfere with the action of the horse. But a ring- 
bone, sidebone, curb, and similar defects do interfere with the 
proper functioning of the parts affected, and are therefore called 
unsoundnesses. A disease irritates parts of the bod}^, so that 
the horse is sick. Distemper, bots, heaves, and colic are diseases. 
We shall study the most important blemishes and unsoundnesses. 

Defective Vision. Horses are often totally blind. This defect 
may be easily observed by looking at the horse's eye and watch- 
ing the horse walk, for a blind horse will lift its feet higher than 
is natural. 

Defective Hearing. Some horses are hard of hearing. Such 
a horse does not respond when spoken to, and will use its eyes 
unduly, and the ears are usually held rigidly. 

Poll Evil appears between the ears over the poll. It is due to 
bruises of the poll, often caused by standing in a stable that has 
a low ceihng. The poll is bruised and becomes sensitive. The 
horse suffering from poll evil does not Hke to be bridled, because 
any touch on the poll is painful. This defect can usually be 
remedied by preventing irritation to the poll. 

^ Harper : Animal Husbandry for Schools. 



THE HORSE 



121 




^1.- 



"J //A 



Fig. 49. — Fistulae. 



Fistula are collections of pus, as indicated in Fig. 49. This 
defect, like poll evil, is caused by a bruise. Often horses 
in rolling bruise the withers on a stone or hard soil and fistulae 
result. They should be opened at the lowest point possible, 
and washed out with a three per 
cent carbolic acid solution or some 
other good disinfectant. 

Sore Shoulders are usually caused 
by an ill-fitting collar. A horse 
having shoulders that are 20 inches 
long and a bearing surface of 2 
inches wide, has a total of 80 
square inches of bearing surface. 
If a collar fits well, and the horse 

pulls 2000 pounds, there is a weight of 25 pounds on each square 
inch. But if the collar is too long, all the weight of the load 
is borne on the shoulder point, or about 8 square inches. 
Then the weight and pressure on each square inch is 250 
pounds, and causes sore shoulders. A well-fitting collar will 
prevent this. 

Sweeny is also a defect on the shoulder. The muscles over the 
shoulder blade shrink, and the remaining muscles apparently 
grow fast to the bone. It is difhcult to lift the skin over the 
region affected. 

Capped elbow, occasionally called shoe boils, may be caused by 
the horse hitting the elbow with the shoe of the rear foot upon 
lying down. Capped elbow does not interfere with the action 
of the horse. 

Splints, bony deposits at the end of the splint bones, generally 
occur on the inner front cannon and sometimes near the tendon. 
Near the tendon a splint interferes with the horse's action much 
more than a splint on the inner front cannon. 



122 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Scratches appear on the rear of the pastern. Scratches are a 
chapped condition of the skin, and are caused by the horse's 
standing in unclean, muddy, wet stables. Give the horse a clean 
stable, wash the parts affected, first with soap, and then with 
clean, well-boiled, salt water. 

Ring Bones and Side Bones are due to a bony deposit and occur 
just above the top of the hoof, generally on the front feet. There 
are two forms of side bones, high and low. Ring bones grow 

nearly all the way around the 
hoof, and side bones grow on 
the sides only. 

Quarter Cracks and Sand 
Cracks. Quarter cracks appear 
at the rear quarter of the foot, 
and sand cracks appear on the 
front part of the hoof. Corns 
and thrush are other blemishes 
of the feet. 

Blemishes and Unsoundnesses 
of the Hock are the most 
common defects in horses. A 
capped hock is an enlargement 
and thickening of the skin of 
the hock. A curb is a bony deposit that appears about three 
or four inches below the hock and is more serious than a capped 
hock. Thoroughpins appear between the tendon and the bone, 
just above the hock. Thoroughpins are knot-like in shape, and 
movable. Bone spavins appear on the inner lower point of the 
hock and may be seen from the front of the horse. Bog spavins 
are soft swellings made by the deposit of oil of the joint and 
appear in the natural depression on the inner and front part of 
the hock. 




Fig. 50. — A capped hock and a curb. 



THE HORSE 



123 



Wind Puffs occur just above either the front or rear fetlocks. 

Distemper is a bad cold of a horse. It is very contagious; 
horses suffering from it should be isolated, and not permitted to 
drink or eat with the other horses. Distemper may usually be 
cured by keeping the horse in clean, dry, warm, sunshiny quar- 
ters, and feeding it carefully. 

Heaves is a disease of the lungs in which the air sacs become 
distended and the muscles around the sacs lose their power to 
control exhalation. Air escapes 
from the lungs suddenly and loudly. 

Bots are due to the bot fly which 
deposits its eggs on the front cannon 
of the horse, where they hatch. 
They cause an itching sensation 
and the horse bites them off and 
swallows them. The larvae remain 
the stomach of the horse for 



m 




Fig. 51. 



Courtesy of Orange J,.dd Co. 

- Bots in stomach. At 
right young bots attached to stomach 
wall. a. female bot fly ; b. the bot; 
c. magnified head of bot. 



about nine or ten months, securing 

their food from the inner lining of 

the stomach. The best way to 

combat bots is to destroy the eggs 

while on the cannon by wetting well with kerosene or some 

disinfectant. (See Exercise 2.) 

Every effort should be made to keep the horse free from blem- 
ishes, unsoundnesses, and diseases of all kinds. With care one 
may protect the horse so that bruises and sprains will be prevented. 

Draft Horse Type. — Draft horses are large, compact, and 
heavy. When fat, they weigh from 1600 to 2300 pounds. The 
weight of draft horses affects the price. Heavy draft horses 
bring more per pound than light draft horses. In 1893 a Chicago 
firm found the average prices for the weights as follows : ^ 
1 Craig : Judging Live Stock. 



124 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Average Weight 


Average Price 


Cents per Pou>fD 


1400 


^155-87 


$0,111 


1450 


159-15 


O.rOQ 


1500 


169-15 


O.I 12 


1550 


176.56 


0.II4 


1600 


176.62 


O.IIO 


1650 


208.64 


0.126 


1700 


212.89 


0.125 


1750 


236.14 


0.126 


1800 


258.33 


0.135 



It will be seen from this table that horses weighing 1800 
pounds brought more than $100 more than horses weighing 
1400 pounds. Weight is an important factor in draft horse 
values. 

The importance of quality of bone, skin, and hair of a draft 
horse can hardly be overemphasized. Roughness of bone, show- 
ing blemishes and unsoundnesses, is a bad condition. The 
leg should be flat and wide, with well-defined tendons. The 
skeleton of a draft horse is better covered than that of a light 
horse, and therefore blemishes are often difficult to detect. 
Sound texture of bone and foot are desirable points. A good foot 
is essential to any horse. The old saying, " no foot, no horse," 
is correct. A sound, tough- textured, good-sized, concave, solid 
foot is essential in a draft horse. The legs and feet should be 
straight from the front and the back. A well-sloping shoulder 
and well-sloping pastern are essential. A long, regular, true 
elastic walk is the essential gait of this type of horse. (See 
Exercise 3.) 

The Draft Horse Breeds. — The Percheron horse originated 
in La Perche, France. All horses used in France for breeding 
purposes are examined by Government veterinarians, and are 
classified as follows : 



THE HORSE 



125 




Fig. 52. 



A Percheron type, showing the conformation, intelligence, temperament, and 
countenance desirable in a Percheron horse. 



126 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 



v of Hale Pub. Co. 



A Pt-rcheron mare, showing the breed characterisLics, furm, and color that are 
most typically Percheron. 



THE HORSE 



127 



1. Approved horses are the best, and the owners are given 
a bonus yearly of $60 to $100 as a subsidy, by the national 
government. 

2. Subsidized horses are the next best, and owners of this 
class of horses are given a bonus of about $60 yearly. 




Fig. 54. — Baron's Pride. Said to be the greatest Clydesdale sire in the world. Shows 
the conformation, sloping shoulders and pasterns, short back, and a distribution of white 
points that stamp this breed. 



3. Authorized horses belong to the poorest class, and are per- 
mitted to be used as breeding stock, but are considered mediocre 
horses, — and their kind is discouraged. Such government sup- 
port as the above helps in building up a definite type of animal. 



128 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Percheron horses have been imported in large numbers into 
the United States, and are found chiefly in IlHnois, Iowa, Ohio, 
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
Minnesota. 




Fig. 55. — A Shire stallion, showing the most approved type combining size, weight, 
conformation, draft, and color typical of this breed. 

Percheron horses have definite breed characteristics. They 
are usually black or gray in color, 15^ to 17 hands high, weighing 
from 1600 to 2100 pounds. They have a strong conformation 
and are noted for their constitution and endurance. They gen- 
erally have excellent feet, excellent heads and necks, and in every 
respect are fine horses. For a combination of constitution, en- 
durance, feet, speed, and strength, they have few equals and 
no superiors. (See Exercise 4.) 



THE HORSE 



129 



The Clydesdale horse has been developed by Scotch breeders 
along the Clyde River in Scotland. Though they are of mixed 
origin, since about 1850 they have been kept pure. Clydesdale 
horses are now found chiefly in Germany, Russia, Sweden, Argen- 
tine Repubhc, and the United States. 




Fig. s6. — Belgian draft horse. 

The Clydesdales are typical draft horses, being about 16 to 
i6| hands tall and weighing from 1600 to 2100 pounds. They 
are usually bay and brown in color, with often one or more white 
feet, and sometimes a white-blazed face. Their shoulders and 
pasterns are obhque and help to give them good action. The 
feet, bone, and action are emphasized by the Scotch breeders. 
The ribs of the Clydesdale horses are often comparatively short. 



13© 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



This makes for a body that lacks depth. The action of the 
Clydesdale is unsurpassed by other breeds of draft horses. 
Some people object to their lack of length of rib, and to their 
hairy fetlocks. 




Fig. 57. — A Hackney coach horse. 



The English Shire horse is the draft horse of England. It is 
a large horse equaled only by the Belgian horse in weight. These 
horses weigh, when fat, from 1800 to 2400 pounds. They are 
generally black, bay, or gray in color, with white markings on the 



THE HORSE 



131 



forehead and on the legs below the knee. The Shire is a strong, 
massive draft horse. They are found mainly in English-speak- 
ing countries. There are some Shires in the United States. 

The Belgian is the largest of all the draft breeds. Figure 56 is 
a fair representation of the Belgian type. 








Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. 



Fig. 58. — Strength and speed. Note width of breast, and short straight pasterns of 
the one in contrast to light and long oblique pasterns of the other one. 



The Siijfolk Punch horse originated in England. They are 
chestnut in color, and the smallest of the draft breeds. 

Coach Horses. — Coach horses range from 15 to i6| hands 
high, and weigh from 1000 to 1500 pounds. The German Coach, 
the Hackney, and Cleveland Bay of England, and the French 
Coach represent the coach breeds. The German Coach is the 



132 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Courtesy 0/ I hi Shuir //(ir\i Cliroiiui,'. J.ixnif;loii , Kcnlurky. 



Fig. 59. — Rex McDonald 833, — an American saddle horse, showing the beautiful 
form, the stylish carriage of head and tail, and the intelligence of tiiis breed. 



THE HORSE 



^33 



largest and the Hackney the smallest of this type. The Hackney 
is known for its high knee and hock action. The principal gait 
of the coach horse is the trot. 

Light Horses. — Light horses comprise the English Thorough- 
bred, American Saddle horse, the Standard Bred horse, the 
Arabian, and Orloff Trotter. The Thoroughbred is the English 
running horse. The American Saddle horse is either a three- or 
five-gaited horse. The Standard 
Bred horse is bred for speed. These 
horses trot or pace. The Standard 
Bred horse and the American 
Saddle horse furnish much enter- 
tainment at State Fairs. (See 
Exercises 5 and 6.) 

The Market Classes of Mules. 
— There are live market classes of 
mules, (i) The plantation mules 
are of two kinds, the sugar planta- 
tion mule and the cotton mule. 
Sugar plantation mules are 15 to 
17 hands tall, and weigh 11 00 to 
1500 pounds. They are better 
than other mules in quality, style, 
and action, and bring the highest 
prices. The cotton mules range 
from 14I to 15I hands, and weigh 
from 850 to 1 100 pounds. They 

have medium-sized bones, are compact, and of good style. 
(2) The lumber mules range from 15I to 165 hands, weigh 
from 1250 to 1600 pounds, and possess more ruggedness and 
bone than do the sugar mules. (3) Railroad mules are the 
same height as lumber mules but weigh a little less. Quahty 




Fig. 60. — A matched mule team. 
Note the fine, gentle, docile counte- 
nances of these mules. They are superior 
and safe workers. 



134 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

and action are essential points of this mule. (4) Levee mules 
are about the same as railroad mules, but possess a little more 
substance, and can do harder work. They are used as draft 
animals. Soundness and working ability are emphasized. 
(5) The mining mules are from 12^ to 14^ hands, and weigh 
about 700 to 900 pounds. They must possess rather heavy bones 
and be rugged in order to do the work in the mines. 

Prices vary, but the rnining mules and cotton mules are gen- 
erally the lowest-priced mules ; mules belonging to the other 
classes have a ready sale and bring good prices. 

Care and Management of Horses. — Occasionally horses' 
teeth do not wear down evenly, and a little filing will take 
away the uneven sharp edges left on the upper corner in- 
cisors. 

Horses should not be exposed to a cold brisk wind, or left out 
in the cold when they have been driven hard. Blanketing the 
horse will prevent disease, and protects the horse somewhat 
against extreme cold temperatures. 

The feet of a horse need constant attention if it is being worked. 
Dry hoofs should be oiled, and shoes should be carefully put on 
and renewed frequently. The entire length of the horse's foot 
grows out in from 3 to 14 months. At the rear, where the foot 
is short, it grows out in 4 months. At the front the entire length 
is repaired by new tissues in about 12 to 14 months. Since the 
foot is larger near the bottom than at the top of the hoof, and 
since the hoof grows quite rapidly, shoes should be taken off, 
and refitted to the foot. Poor action and blemishes are often 
due to poor shoeing. It is better to fit the shoe to the foot than 
the foot to the shoe. 

Horses should be groomed in the morning and at the close of 
the day. Grooming has other values than merely improving the 
appearance of the horse. Brushing off the perspiration at the 



THE HORSE 



135 



close of the day improves the condition of skin and hair, and 
reduces the chances of the horse's becoming chilled. 

Training Horses. — Colts should be handled very early in 
life, and may be made gentle. They may be taught to stand 
over, back, or move forward. A few simple things taught the 
colt saves a lot of energy later and secures better results. 

When a young horse is being trained to work, it should be 
hitched beside a well-trained, easily controlled, sensible horse. 




a. a, a. End of esophagus. 

b. Forestomach . 

c. True digestive part. 

c. Pyloric orifice. 

d. Duodenum. 

e. Orifices of bile and pancreatic 

ducts. 




Fig. 61. — A simple and a compound stomach. 



The early training of a colt is important, for then he forms habits 
which stick to him afterward. For illustration, if a colt is allowed 
to start as soon as or before the driver gets into the wagon, the 
habit will be hard to overcome. But, on the other hand, if he 
is trained to stand until the driver says go, this habit will remain 
with him always. It is for this reason that a few simple things 
should be taught a horse when he is being trained. Horses will 



136 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



do what you ask them to do, but first they must be taught what 
is wanted. 

Feeding Horses. — The digestive organs of different farm ani- 
mals vary in capacity. Horses and swine have one stomach, 
while the ruminants, cows, sheep, and goats have several 
stomachs. The picture on the preceding page will give an idea 
of the difference. 

The capacities of the digestive organs of the different animals 
as given by Harper are as follows : ^ 

Length of Intestines and Capacity of Stomach of Farm Animals 



Horse 
Cow 
Sheep 
Hog 



Capacity Quarts 



Stomach 



IQ.O 

266.9 

31-3 

8.5 



Intestines 



204.8 
IOQ.8 

154 

20.5 



Total Quarts 



223.8 

376.7 
46.7 
29.0 



Length Feet of 
Intestines 



98.1 
187.2 

I07-3 
77.1 



It will be observed from the table that the horse and hog 
have smaller digestive organs, and for this reason their food must 
not be so bulky as the feed of cows and sheep. 

A few rations for work horses weighing 1250 lb. will be in 
order here : 



/ Oats . . . 
1 Timothy hay 



12.0 lb. 
13.0 lb. 



Corn 10.8 lb. 

Oats 8.0 lb. 

Timothy hay . . . lo.o lb. 

. Oat straw . . . . 5.0 lb. 



Oats . . . 


. 1 0.0 lb 


Corn 


. 5-olb 


Hay . . . 


. 15.0 lb 


Corn . . . 


. 5-0 lb 


Oats . . . 


. . 5.0 lb 


Bran . . . 


. 5.0 lb 


Timothy hay . 


. lo.o lb 



•^ Harper: Animal Husbandry for Schools. 



THE HORSE 137 

The nutritive ratio of one or two of these rations should be 
figured according to data given in the preceding chapter on Feeds 
and Feeding. 

Summary. — In judging a horse it is important to know 
the age, and to be able to detect any unsoundnesses. The 
formation of the skeleton determines largely the action, shape, 
constitution, and endurance of the horse. The draft horse must 
be able to walk well ; the coach horse must trot well ; and light 
horses must be able to perform at different gaits. The early 
training of a colt is important, for the habits horses learn in 
their youth remain with them. Proper feed and care increase 
the usefulness of a horse. A horse can hardly be expected to do 
his best unless he has a good driver, and a well-fitting harness. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Examine the Skeleton Formation of the Horse. — (a) In the draft 
horse, note the large frame; size and strength of the bones; and the short, 
thick pastern. Note the Hghtness of frame and the length of the pastern 
of the coach horse. Study the action, noting the length of stride, elasticity, 
trueness, and energy. How does the light horse differ from the coach horse, 
and the draft horse ? (b) With a plumb line, made by tying a little rock 
or a piece of lead to a string, study the skeleton of a horse, as to straight- 
ness from the shoulder point, and buttock, and also from the sides. 

2. Tell the Age of a Horse. — ^ Examine several horses and tell their 
ages. From what teeth can you tell the age of horses imder nine years ? 
Over nine years ? What points are observed on the lower front teeth of a 
horse three years old ? Four years old ? How can one tell the age of a 
horse under five years ? How can one tell the age of a horse after he is five 
years old ? After he is nine years old ? After what age is it impossible to 
tell accurately the age of a horse ? 

3. Location of Blemishes. — With a horse before you, tell where 
blemishes are located, and the character of each. 



138 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




JEW 



1. Mouth. 

2. Nostril. 

3. Chin. 

4. Nose. 

5. Face. 

6. Forehead. 

7. Eye. 

8. Ear. 

9. Lower jaw. 

10. Throat latch. 

11. Windpipe. 

12. Crest. 

13. Withers. 



Fig. 62. — Parts of a horse. 

14. Shoulder. 

15. Breast. 

16. Arm. 

17. Elbow. 

18. Forearm. 

19. Knee. 

20. Cannon. 

21. Fetlock. 

22. Pastern. 

23. Foot. 

24. Fore flank. 

25. Heart girth. 

26. Coupling. 



27. Back. 

28. Loin. 

29. Rear flank. 

30. Belly. 

31. Hip. 

32. Croup. 
3i- Tail. 

34. Buttock. 

35. Quarters. 

36. Thigh. 

37. Stifle. 

38. Lower thigh. 

39. Hock. 



THE HORSE 



139 



4. Measurements of a Draft Horse and a Light Horse. — Take measure- 
ments with a tape of the following points of a draft horse and a Hght horse, 
and record in the following table. 

To make these measurements accurately you will need to study the parts 
of the horse shown on the opposite page. On Figure 62 indicate the 
distances in the table that are to be measured, and practice imtil you can 
locate the points at once. How many of the parts mentioned on Fig- 
ure 62 can you locate correctly without the aid of the figure numbers ? 



1. Length of head from lips to poll . 

2. Length of neck from poll to withers 

3. Height at withers 

4. Height frohi withers to elbow . . 

5. Distance from elbow to ground 

6. Length of shoulder 

7. Length of arm 

8. Length of forearm 

9. Length of cannon 

10. Distance around cannon .... 

11. Distance from fetlock to ground . 

12. Angle of front pastern .... 

13. Girth measure 

14. Length of back from withers to hip 

15. Length from shoulder to buttock . 

16. Length of croup 

17. Length of gaskin 

18. Distance from hock to ground . . 

19. Height at croup 

20. Angle of hind pastern 

21. Width through breast .... 

22. Width over hips 

23. Weight 



Draft 



Light 



I40 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



5. To Score a Draft Horse. — Use the following score card in judging 
several draft horses : 

Score Card for Horses — Draft 



Scale of Points 




g 

c55 


S 
g 


H 
Z 

Q 

<55 


S 

g 

u 


1 

g 


s 
e 

H 
g 


H 

§ 

Q 


§ 

g 
U 


I. General Appearance — 35 points 

Age, estimated — years — actual . . . 

Height, in hands 

Weight, estimated — lb. — actual . . . 
Form, low, massive, drafty, symmetrical . 
Quality, bone flat, tendons defined, skin and 

hair fine 

Color, according to breed 

Action, step elastic, long with energy, trot 


8 
6 

6 
I 

6 
5 
3 

I 

I 
I 
I 

I 

3 
I 
2 
3 

2 

I 


— ■ 





— 

















Attitude, members vertical 

Temperament, good disposition, docile 

2. Head and Neck — 5 points 

Head, proportionate size, broad forehead, 
straight profile, clear-cut features . . 

Muzzle, fine, nostrils, large, lips, thin and 
even 





Eyes, full, clear, bright, and intelligent 
Ears, short, clean, fine, and directed forward 
Neck, well muscled, arched, throat clean 
with long, even collar line and well carried 

3. Forequarters — 20 points 

Shoulders, long, extending into back, collar 
line smooth, and having a large bearing 
surface 




Arm, relatively short, well set back, muscled 
Forearm, vertical, wide, heavily muscled . 
Knees, clean cut, strongly supported . . 
Cannons, vertical, tendons well defined, 9- 

10 inches long, free from blemishes . . 
Fetlocks, wide, thick, clean, free from wind 

puffs 






THE HORSE 



141 



Score Card for Horses — Draft {Continued) 



Scale of Points 



Pasterns, angle 45 degrees, not too long, 
showing strength 

Feet, even sized, large, horn dark colored, 
sole concave, bars strong, heels wide 
apart, frog large 

4. Body — 10 points 

Chest, ribs well sprung, deep, showing con- 
stitution, half the height of horse 
Breast, broad, deep, and muscular . . 
Ribs, long, round curvature, well sprung 
Back, short, straight, muscular, broad 
Loin, wide, short, closely coupled . . 
Underline, long, and flanks low . . . 

5. Hind Quarters — 30 points 

Hips, level, wide, and smooth .... 

Croup, wide, long, fairly level .... 

Tail, set high and well carried .... 

Thighs, well muscled 

Quarter, heavily muscled and well de- 
scended 

Gaskin, medium, straight, wide, well 
muscled 

Hocks, clean cut, large, straight, free from 
blemishes 

Cannons, i i-i 2 inches long, clean . . . 

Fetlocks, wide, clean, strong 

Pasterns, angle of 60 degrees, free from 
puiSness 

Feet, well set, concave soles, heels high, well 
apart, and of a good texture .... 

Total 100 



142 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



6. To Study a Saddle Horse. — If there is a saddle horse in the com- 
munity, have the owner bring him to school and let him demonstrate the 
gaits of a saddle horse. A three-gaited horse must go the walk, trot, and 
canter. A five-gaited horse goes the following gaits in addition : racks and 
paces, or foxtrots, a running walk or a slow pace. 

7. Score a Light Horse according to the Following Score Card : 



Scale of Points 




1 
c55 


Q 
Id 

s 

g 

u 




s 


m 

z: 

1 


1 

u 




g 

i 

u 


I. General Appearance — 43 points 

Age, estimated 

Height, estimated 

Weight, estimated 

Form, symmetrical, high, light, indicative 

of good action 

Quality, bone fine, tendons defined, skin 

and hair fine 

Action, quick, step long, true, and regular, 

trot rapid and even . 

Attitude, members vertical 

Temperament, lively, energetic, intelligent, 


4 
4 

4 
8 

15 

4 

4 

I 

I 
I 
I 

I 

2 
I 

2 
3 


— 


— 














— 


— 


2. Head and Neck — 5 points 

Head, lean, clean cut, well-defined features, 

carried high, profile straight .... 

Muzzle fine, nostrils large, lips thin and 




Eyes, full, bright, and intelligent . . . 

Ears short, alert, well carried .... 

Neck, well fitted to head, sUghtly arched, 

clean, large windpipe 

3. Forequarters — 19 points 

Shoulders, oblique and well set back . . 

Arms, short, well set back 

Forearms, long, 12-13 inches, well muscled, 

and clearly defined 

Knees, clean cut, wide, deep, well supported 


— 



THE HORSE 



143 



Scale of Points 




Q 


Q 
Id 

oi 

g 




H 
Z 
W 
Q 


Q 
M 

u 


z 

C/2 


Q 
W 
H 

w 
ai 

g 


H 

H 
Q 

J5 


1 


Cannons, lo-ii inches long, tendons, well 
attached and defined 

Fetlocks, free from puffiness 

Pasterns, long, sloping 

Feet, horn dense, concave sole, fair size, 
frog, large and elastic, heels, wide apart 

4. Body — 8 points 

Chest, higher than for draft horses, should 
show constitution 

Withers, clearly defined in driving horses, 
coach horses less 

Breast, high and projecting 

Ribs, long and well sprung 

Back, fair length, well muscled .... 

Loin strongly joined to hips 

Underline, long, fairly straight .... 

5. Hind Quarters — 25 points 

Hips, more prominent 

Croup, wide, long, muscular, and horizontal 

Tail, set high, well carried, long, full, and 

fine 


2 

I 
2 

6 

2 

I 
I 
I 
I 
I 
I 

I 
3 

I 

3 

I 

2 

4 

2 

I 
2 

_5_ 
100 







' 


— 














Thighs, 15-16 inches long, stifle, deviated 
outward 

Buttock, heavily muscled 

Gaskin, 14-15 inches long, well muscled, 
wide . . 





Hocks, clean, 3 inches deep, straight . . 

Cannons, 11-12 inches long, tendons, well 

defined 




Fetlocks, clean, no wind puff^s .... 

Pastern, long, sloping 

Feet, even sized, concave sole, heels far 
apart, tough textured 

Total 









CHAPTER XI 
BEEF CATTLE 

Importance of Beef Cattle. — The total number of cattle in 
the United States in 1910 according to the last census was 
61,803,866. Of this number 20,625,432 were dairy cows, leaving 
41,178,434 other cattle used for beef production. The value of 
all cattle exclusive of the dairy cows was $1,273,287,300. The 
value of all cattle per head was $24.26. 

Beef cattle are distributed throughout the United States, but 
about forty-eight per cent are found in the North Central States 
and Texas. The map (Fig. 63) shows the distribution of all 
cattle exclusive of dairy cattle. (See Exercise i.) 

Reasons for Beef Production. — Beef cattle are produced 
primarily for four classes of people, — the breeders, the feeders, 
the retail butchers, and the consumers ; and the real purpose 
of beef production is to furnish food for man. In judging 
cattle the purpose for which they are to be used should be con- 
sidered. The butcher considers small bones important, because 
a small-boned animal gives a higher per cent of dressed carcass. 
The feeder wants a steer that will put on a maximum amount of 
beef with the minimum of feed. In judging breeding stock, 
breed characteristics, conformation, quality, and temperament 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

A beef cow to show the beef cuts; and a Shorthorn, Hereford, and 
Angus cow to judge. 

144 



BEEF CATTLE 



145 



can hardly be overemphasized. The points of excellence held 
by the breeder, feeder, butcher, and consumer should be kept in 
mind when judging. 

Characteristics of Beef Cattle. — Beef cattle are low, compact, 
rectangular, and heavy. They are " bricklike " in form. The 
top line and under line are almost straight and parallel. The 




Fig. 63. — -Number of beef cattle on farms, by states, April 15, igio. 



back is broad and the body is deep. The quarters are fleshy 
and well descended. The body is blocky. Roughness is to be 
avoided. 

The head is a good index to the body characteristics. A steer 
with a wide head, large box-shaped muzzle, and large nostrils is 
usually a good feeder. Large nostrils show breathing capacity. 
The ears should be medium in size, should not be coarse, and 
should show quality. If horns are present, they should be of 
fine texture, and rather small. A steer with these head charac- 



146 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

teristics is usually compact, blocky, a good feeder, and will 
dress out, when well finished, a high per cent of edible dressed 
meats. 

On the other hand, a steer with a thin long face, a thin narrow 
forehead, a small muzzle, small nostrils, large coarse ears, and 
long rough oversized horns, is generally unprofitable. The 




Courtesy of (he Agricultural Exension Department, Purdue Unnersity. 
Fig. 64. — A typical beef type; bricklike in conformation from side, front, and top view. 

features of the head are correlated with similar features in the 
rest of the body. (See Figures 64 and 65.) 

The Valuable Cuts. — The picture (Fig. 66) shows the way a 
steer is cut for the retail beef trade. It is taken from Farmers' 
Bulletin, No. 711, and shows the Chicago retail dealer's method 
of cutting beef. It should be studied because it shows where 
beef cattle ready for slaughtering should be well formed and 
finished. The region from which the porterhouse steak, prime 



BEEF CATTLE 



147 



of rib, and sirloin cuts are taken is important. A broad, well- 
finished back is 9, sign of a great amount of meat in the region of 
these valuable cuts. There are some " cuts " which are actually 
worth less after the steer is slaughtered than they were when the 
steer was alive. 

A steer of good quality, that is of fine bone, skin, and hair, well 




Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University^ 
Fig. 65. — An inferior feeder. 



finished and evenly, firmly, and smoothly fleshed, weighing 
1200 pounds, will dress out about 800 pounds (about 66|%), 
and of this about 700 pounds of meat can be eaten. Careful 
judging of beef cattle and a close study of the score card will 
aid a great deal in placing proper estimates upon the different 
sections of a beef type. (See Exercise 2.) 



148 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The Beef Breeds. — All the typical beef breeds have the 
characteristics pointed out in the above paragraphs. They vary 
slightly in different sections of the country, in temperament, in 

color, in milk production, and 
in other minor points. For a 
more extended discussion refer 
to other texts, and especially 
to Types and Breeds of Farm 
A nimals, hy C&.Vhimh. The 
most important breeds of beef 
cattle are Shorthorns, Here- 
fords, Aberdeen Angus, and 
Galloways. 

I. Shorthorn Cattle, a. History. The origin of the Shorthorn 
cattle is as mixed as are the people of England. The native Celts, 
the Romans, Anglo-Saxons and Jutes, and the Normans, all 
brought cattle that served to lay the foundation of the Shorthorn 
breed. However, not until about 1775 to 1875 were the Short- 
horns developed into a well-defined breed. The following men 
developed slightly different types of Shorthorns as follows : 




Fig. 66. — Picture of a 1200-pound beef 
steer, showing cuts and their relative value, 
according to a large packing concern. 





Born 


Died 


Type 


Thomas Bates 


1775 


1849 


Dairy-beef type 


Chas. CoUings 


1749 


1836 


Beef type 


Robt. Collings 


1750 


1820 


Beef type 


John Booth 


1789 


1857 


Beef type 


Richard Booth 


1788 


1864 


Beef type 


Amos Cruickshank .... 


1808 


1895 


Beef type 



These were the men who started the real history of the Short- 
horn cattle. All of these men did their work in England except 
Amos Cruickshank, who was in Scotland. 



BEEF CATTLE 



149 



Although Shorthorn cattle were imported into the United 
States as early as 1783, the Ohio Importing Company, or- 
ganized in 1833, was the most important agent in introducing 
Shorthorn cattle into the United States. The first importation 
included nineteen head. In 1836, forty-three animals, including 
those that were imported and their offspring, were sold at pub- 




FiG. 67. — ■ A Shorthorn type, showing conformation and head characteristics which 

stamp this breed. 



lie auction for $34,540, an average of $803.25 per head. The 
Shorthorn characteristics were so excellent that they were soon 
distributed throughout the country. 

No other breed has been used as much as the Shorthorn in 
crossing and grading up native cattle. The entire West, and the 
South American countries, have been materially benefited by 
mating native stock with Shorthorns. The pure-bred sire pro- 
duced an animal that dressed out a higher per cent of carcass, 



156 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

had shorter horns, had a better disposition than the native cattle, 
and was more easily handled. The rapid elevation of good 
characteristics as a result of crossing was a splendid financial 
investment. Such opportunities in breeding up herds, though 
not so numerous as formerly, are still present. Ordinary farm 
herds may be improved a great deal by mating with animals of 
the same breed, that are pure bred, and of the proper conforma- 
tion. 

b. Characteristics. In England three types of Shorthorns 
were developed ; namely, the beef type, the dairy type, and the 
dairy -beef type (dual purpose). Each type has a different 
conformation in accordance with its purpose. In the United 
States, the beef type is more commonly found, because our 
agricultural conditions are somewhat different from those of 
England. In England the dairy type is common, and the Eng- 
lish people depend largely upon the Shorthorn cow for their milk 
supply. " At the London Dairy Show, from 1894 to 1904 inclu- 
sive, the first place in both milk production and fat production 
was won in every case by a Shorthorn, competing against Jerseys, 
Guernseys, Ayrshires, Red Polled, and crosses." ^ 

Shorthorns are red, white, and roan. A mixture of red and 
white is roan. Some breeders have placed more emphasis upon 
color than upon other points. This is a mistake, for color is 
a matter of secondary importance. Beef-producing qualities 
should be placed first. The Shorthorns rank first among the 
beef breeds in udder development and in milk-producing ability. 
They may occasionally be criticized in being slightly rangy and 
in having prominent shoulders. They may be regarded as the 
largest of the beef breeds. The males weigh from 1800 to 
2400 pounds, and mature cows from 1400 to 1800 pounds. 
(See Exercise 3.) 

1 C. H. Eckles : Dairv Cattle and Milk Production. 



BEEF CATTLE 



151 



2. The Hereford, a. History. Hereford cattle originated in 
the county of Hereford, England. Their origin is somewhat 
obscure, and according to the opinions of some authors the 
Hereford is the oldest of the beef breeds. But, like the Short- 
horn breed, it was not until about 1723 that the Hereford 
breed was. developed with definite breed characteristics. 

Henry Clay, in 181 7, became the first importer of Hereford 
cattle into the United States. From 1840 to i860, a great many 




Fig. 68. — A Hereford cow, showing the conformation, color, markings, and head charac- 
teristics desirable in the breed. 



were brought to America. Because the Hereford cattle are 
superior rustlers, they have been used much in crossing with 
native Western cattle. Although Herefords have not been used 
as much in crossing on native cattle of North and South America 
as have the Shorthorns, it may be said that in the last decade 
their popularity has steadily increased, and that their good 
qualities are becoming realized more and more by ranchmen. 

b. Characteristics. The Herefords are typical beef-produc- 
ing cattle. They are not quite as large as the Shorthorn breed. 



152 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The color is red, with a white head, and the white extending over 
neck and along the underline. Six white tips may often be seen 
in the individuals of this breed. They have a quiet, docile 
disposition. In milk production they rank low, and are often 
criticized on this point. 

The distinguishing characteristics of the Herefords are, (i) pre- 
potency, or power of transmitting definite breed characteristics, 
(2) early maturing qualities, and (3) grazing attributes. Where 
Hereford cattle have been crossed with other breeds, Hereford 
markings usually crop out in the offspring. Their vigorous 
constitution is often transmitted when crossed with other cattle. 
This is partly due to the fact that in spring of rib they are un- 
equaled. Hereford cattle mature early and are, therefore, su- 
perior in economical meat production. They are good grazers, 
and as rustlers in stalk fields, pastures, and on the range where 
feed is scarce, they are unexcelled. 

3. The Aberdeen Angus, a. History. The Aberdeen Angus 
originated in the counties of Aberdeen, Kincardine, and Forfar, 
Scotland. The first printed reference to this breed was made in 
1797. 

The Angus cattle were first introduced into the United States 
in 1873, when George Grant of Victoria, Kansas, imported three 
bulls. From 1875 to 1885 small numbers of Angus were im- 
ported into different sections of the United States and Canada, 
Large numbers are found in the " corn belt " states, and they 
are widely distributed throughout Europe. 

b. Angus Characteristics. The Angus cattle are black, polled, 
and are of a typical beef conformation. They are not quite as 
large as the Shorthorn breed. Their bodies are more cylindrical 
than are the bodies of either the Shorthorn or Hereford breeds. 
Compactness is a strong feature of the breed. In quality, which 
refers to desirable features of bone, skin, and hair, they are un- 



BEEF CATTLE 



153 



excelled. It is for this reason, along with their splendid conforma- 
tion, that they dress out as high a percentage of carcass as any 
breed. The Angus cattle are good grazers and feeders, and are 
unsurpassed in quality of flesh produced. For beef production, 




Fig. 09. — The Aberdeen Angus steer. An e.xample of a tine beef tj'pe. 



meeting the market demands of the commission houses, and in 
show ring competition, the Angus breed ranks high. 

4. Galloways, a. History. The Galloways came from Scot- 
land. Their origin is more or less obscure ; the name is from the 
province of Galloway in the southwestern part of Scotland. At 
first the cattle of Galloway were horned, and not until about 



154 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

1789 did " polled " cattle appear. In 1862 the Galloway Herd- 
book Society was organized. In America an organization to 
improve the Galloways was perfected under the title of " The 
American Galloway Cattle Breeders' Association," in 1882. 
The Galloways are now mainly distributed in Scotland and 
America. 

b. Characteristics. The Galloways are black, hornless, and cov- 
ered with a heavy, curly coat of hair. Hardiness and strength 
of constitution are characteristics of the breed. They are well 
adapted to a cold, rigorous climate. Because of their hardiness 
and rustling qualities, they are popular on the Western and 
Northwestern ranges. The breed has been criticized for lack of 
spring of rib, late maturity, and for slow response to feeding. 
These points are being overcome to a large extent by selective 
breeding. (See Exercise 4.) 

Management of Beef Cattle. — The number of beef cattle per 
one thousand people in the United States has decreased from 660 
to 450 between 1900 and 1910. The reasons for this decrease 
are : 

1. The ranges of the West are being plowed up. 

2. Farmers can often get more cash out of the sale of their 
crops. 

3. Tenant farmers are frequently unable to stock the rented 
farms. 

4. Growing cities have increased the demand for milk and its 
products. 

Economic Production of Beef. ^- In producing beef more eco- 
nomically three points must be considered : 

1. Relation of age to economic gains. 

2. Relation of age to cost of fattening. 

3. Influence of degree of finish upon gains. 

I. Relatioti of Age of Cattle to Economic Gains. — The tabula- 



BEEF CATTLE 



155 




156 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



tion of the findings by the Ontario Agricultural College shows 
the amount of gain in weight at different ages and the amount 
of food required. 

Relation of Age to Economic Beef Production 



Daily gain 

Total gain 

Feed per one hundred pound gain 
milk calf used 

Concentrates 

Hay 

Succulent feed 

Digestible nutrients per one hundred 

pound gain 

Water drunk daily 



First Year 



Pounds 
2.2 
785 

492 
184 

27 



Second Year 



Pounds 
1.2 
456 



480 

777 
1928 

87s 
43 



Third Year 



Pounds 
I.O 
350 



689 

776 

2637 

I183 
47 



This table shows that the first year the calf made a gain of 
2.2 pounds a day; the second year, 1.2; and the third year, 
I.I pounds a day. If the feed per one hundred pound gain is 
studied, some interesting points are brought out. The total 
digestible nutrients required to produce one hundred pounds 
gain was 315 pounds during the first year, 875 pounds the second 
year, and 11 83 pounds the third year. The steer weighed 1588 
pounds when slaughtered. 

We should not conclude from this table that it is more econom- 
ical to sell the steer when he is a year old ; but it should cause 
us to study the relation of age to economic gains. 

2. Relation of Age to Cost of Fattening. — With 153 head of 
cattle, the Ottawa Experiment Farms found the results shown 
in the following table : 



BEEF CATTLE 157 

Rate A^rD Cost of Gains for Fattening Steers of Various Ages 



Calves . . . 
Yearlings . . 
Two-year-olds 
Three-year-olds 



Average Weight 
AT Begixning 



Pounds 

397 

833 

lOII 

1226 



Average Daily 
Gain 



1.6 

1.8 
1-7 



Average Cost or 

One Hundred Pounds 

Gain 



Dollars 
M-2 2 

5-31 
5.62 

6.36 



This table indicates that calves weighing 397 pounds put on 
one hundred pounds gain at a cost of $4.22, and that it required 
^6.36 worth of feed to put an equal weight on three-year-old 
steers, weighing 1226 pounds. 

3. The Influence of the Degree of Finish upon Gains. — The 
Kansas Station found the following regarding the amount of 
gain required to produce one hundred pounds of gain : ^ 







Grain for One 


Increase of Feed 






Hundred Lb. Gain 


Required 


Up to 


56 days the steers required 


130 lb. of grain 




Up to 


84 days the steers required 


807 lb. of grain 


10% 


Up to 


112 days the steers required 


840 lb. of grain 


15% 


Up to 


140 days the steers required 


901 lb. of grain 


23% 


Up to 


168 days the steers required 


927 lb. of grain 


27% 


Up to 


182 days the steers required 


1000 lb. of grain 


37% 



From these data we learn that feeders find that as they ap- 
proach the finishing period of fattening cattle for market it is 
more difficult to secure gains in weight. The results of these 
experiments indicate that it costs heavily to thoroughly fatten 



1 Kansas Bulletin, No. 34. 



iS8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 71 



of the beef COW. 



1. Muzzle. 

2. Eye. 

3. Face. 

4. Forehead. 

5. Ear. 

6. Neck. 

7. Shoulder vein. 

8. Shoulder. 

9. Brisket. 

10. Jaw. 

11. Breast. 



12. DewLip. 

13. Arm. 

14. Shin. 

15. Fore legs. 

16. Chest. 

17. Fore flank. 

18. Crops. 

19. Ribs. 

20. Back. 

21. Loin. 

22. Hip. 



23. Hind flank. 

25. Rump. 

26. Tail-head. 

27. Pin bones. 

28. Thigh. 

29. Twist. 

30. Hock. 

31. Shank. 

32. Tail. 



BEEF CATTLE 



159 



the steer. The importance of selHng at the earliest possible 
date is plain from the table. 

Summary. — For producing beef economically, the typical 
beef breeds are superior. They dress out a higher per cent of 
dressed carcass, and make gains with less feed than do scrubs 
or dairy types. The important beef breeds are the Shorthorn, 
Hereford, Angus, and Galloway. In judging beef cattle, the 
region of the valuable cuts should be given preference, though 
all other points are important. Grass lands, corn silage, and 
some grains aid in raising calves economically. Getting cattle 
to market at an early age reduces the cost of production. Secur- 
ing cattle of better conformation, economical feeding, and mar- 
keting are important topics for the beef cattle raiser. 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 



1. Cattle Survey of District, 
not dairy cattle of the district. 



— Have pupils take a census of all cattle 
Record as follows : 




2. Location of Beef Cuts. — Locate on a live animal the beef cuts. 
Number them in the order of their value. 

3. To Score Cattle. — Score all beef breeds if possible according to the 
following score card. 



i6o 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Beef Cattle — Score Card 



Scale or Points 



General Appearance — 26 points 

Age, estimated — years, actual — years . 

Weight, estimated— lb., actual — lb., score 
according to age 

Form, straight topline and underline, deep, 
broad, low, medium length, symmetrical, 
compact, standing squarely on legs 

Quality, bone of fine texture, fine skin, silky 
hair, clearly defined features and joints, 
mellow touch 

Condition, thick even covering of firm flesh 
especially in regions of valuable cuts, in- 
dicating finish, light in offal .... 

Head and Neck — 8 points 

Muzzle, good size, lips thin, nostrils large 

and well apart, jaws wide 

Face, short, broad, profile straight . . . 

Forehead, broad 

Eyes, large, full, clear, bright 

Ears, well carried, fine, medium size . . 
Neck, thin, short, throat clean, dewlap slight 

Forequarters — 12 points 

Shoulder vein, full, smooth 

Shoulders, smoothly covered with firm flesh 

compact 

Brisket, broad, full, breast wide .... 

Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, 

forearm full, shank fine, feet sound 



4. Body — 32 points 
Chest, deep, broad. 



girth large, foreflank 



full 



Crops, full, thick, even with shoulders 
Back, broad, straight, medium length: 
thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed . . 



BEEF CATTLE 



i6i 



Beef Cattle — Score Card (Continued) 



Scale of Points 




1 

a 
P 

c55 




I 


u 


Q 

c55 


§ 

i 

u 


1 

5^ 


1 

I 

8 


H 

c55 


g 


Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely set, thickly, 
evenly, and firmly fleshed 

Loin, broad, straight, thickly, evenly, and 
firmly fleshed 

Flanks, full, low 

5. Hindquarters — 22 points 

Hips, smoothly covered, proportionate 
width 


7 

7 
2 

3 

5 
I 

I 

4 
6 

2 
100 


— 








— 




— 


— 





Rump, long, level, width well carried back, 
thickly, evenly, and firmly fleshed . . 

Pin bones, wide apart, not prominent . . 

Tail, fine, tapering, medium length . . 

Thighs, deep, wide, well descended, and 
fleshed 





Twist, deep, broad, well filled .... 

Legs, straight, short, strong, shank smooth, 

feet sound 





Total 
















4. Comparison of Beef Breeds. — Describe in a two hundred fifty word 
paper the outstanding characteristics and contrasting features of the dif- 
ferent beef breeds. 



CHAPTER XII 
DAIRYING 

Importance of Dairying. — According to the United States 
census for 1910, there were 20,625,000 dairy cows in the United 
States, which produced 5,814,000,000 gallons of milk. The total 
value from dairy products in 1909 was $596,000,000. This 
does not include the milk and cream used on the farms, which 
would approximate closely, or probably exceed, the above figure. 
Wing states that, in 1900, the average production per cow was 
3600 pounds of milk, equivalent to about 1 50 pounds of butter fat. 
This milk at $1.25 per hundredweight, or 25 cents per pound 
butter fat, would yield $45.00 or $37.50 per cow, respectively. 

Comparative Value of Dairy Products for 1909 

Corn ?i, 438,000, 000 

Poultry 750,000,000 

Wheat 657,656,000 

Dairy products 596,000,000 

Oats 414,000,000 

The importance of milk as a food for man can hardly be 
estimated, both because of its extensive use and also because it 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Exer- 
cises at the close of this chapter are : 

Dairy cows at different times ; an eight bottle closed Babcock Tester 

(open testers are inaccurate and dangerous) ; the necessary glassware and 

chemicals needed to make the Babcock Test ; samples of whole milk and 

skimmed milk. 

162 



DAIRYING 163 

contains the food nutrients in a better proportion than any 
other one food. Milk is a well-balanced food. 

More attention will be given to dairying as the population 
becomes denser. The cities consume large quantities of milk 
and milk products. Consequently the farmers of the territory 
surrounding the city devote much of their time to dairying, 
and, where shipping facihties are good, the demand for milk is so 
great that it is often shipped as much as two hundred miles or 
more to market. (See Exercise i.) 

The Advantages of Dairying. — In thickly populated countries 
and near cities where land is high priced, nearly all farmers 
give up their land to dairying, truck gardening, and poultry 
raising. On the islands of Jersey and Guernsey, land is said 
to rent for $60.00 to $70.00 per acre, and in Holland, where 
land cannot be bought for less than $1500 to $2000 per 
acre, dairying is the main occupation. Land near our Ameri- 
can cities valued at from $400 to $1000 per acre is used largely 
for dairying. 

Dairying is advantageous because it aids in maintaining soil- 
fertility. The average amount of solid and liquid manure 
voided in a year by a thousand-pound dairy cow is about 12 tons. 
It is stated that such manure contains fertilizing materials (plant 
food) the value of which is $2.74 per ton. Upon this basis the 
value of the fertilizer materials voided by a cow in a year is 
$32.88. However, the amount of manure voided is almost in 
direct proportion to the amount of milk produced ; a good cow 
consumes more feed, and hence voids more manure. It is a 
well-known fact that dairy farms become more productive as this 
type of farming is continued. When butter fat is sold from the 
farm, very little soil fertility is removed. The table below will 
give a comparison of the fertilizing constituents in feeding stuffs 
and animal products. 



1 64 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Fertilizing Constituents in Feeding Stuffs and Animal Products ' 





Fertiluing Constituents in 2000 Lb. 


Fertilizing 














Nitrogen 


Phosphoric Acid 


Potash 




Dent corn . . 


32.4 lb. 


13.8 lb. 


8.0 lb. 


^6.85 


Wheat . . . 


39-6 


17.2 


10.6 


8.43 


Timothy hay . 


19.8 


6.2 


27.2 


5.20 


Red clover hay . 


41.0 


7.8 


32.6 


18.72 


Animal products 










Fat ox . . 


46.6 


31.0 


3-6 


9.96 


Fat pig . . 


35-4 


13.0 


2.8 


7.10 


Milk . . . 


11.6 


3-8 


3-4 


2.43 


Butter . . 


2.4 


0.8 


0.8 


O.S7 



From this table it may be observed that if a ton of butter fat 
is sold, only 57 cents' worth of soil fertility is removed from the 
farm ; while if an equal amount of dent corn be sold, $6.85 worth 
of soil fertility is removed. 

The dairy cow, of all farm animals, is the most economical 
producer of human food ; that is, a dairy cow produces more 
human food in proportion to the feed fed than any other animal. 

Human Food Produced by Farm Animals from One Hundred Pounds 
OF Digestible Matter Consumed ^ 





Market- 


Edible 




Market- 


Edible 




Product 
Pounds 


Product 
Pounds 


Animal 


Product 
Pounds 


Product 
Pounds 


Cow (milk) 


139.0 


18.0 


Poultry (eggs) 


19.6 


5-1 


Pig (dressed) 


25.0 


15-6 


Poultry 






Cow (cheese) 


14.8 


9.4 


(dressed) 


15-6 


4.2 


Calf (dressed) . 


36.S 


8.1 


Lamb (dressed) 


9.6 


3-2 


Cow (butter) . 


6.4 


5-4 


Steer (dressed) 


8.3 


2.8 








Sheep (dressed) 


7.0 


2.6 



1 Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 

2 Jordan : The Feeding of A ninials. 



DAIRYING 



165 



This table shows that with 100 lb. of feed the dairy cow pro- 
duced 18.0 lb. of edible food for man ; more than that produced 
by any other farm animal. The table deserves close study. 

Eckles and Trowbridge, of the Missouri Station, have furnished 
the following data on the point that the cow is a very economic 
human food producer as compared to a beef steer. 





Averages of Cows 

Producing 6000 Lb. 

Milk 


18,40s Lb. Milk 


Steer Weight 
1250 Lb. 


Proteids . . . 
Fat .... 
Sugar .... 
Ash .... 


187 

200 

300 

43 


552 
618 
920 
128 


172 
333 

43 


Total . . . 


730 


2218 


548 



It took the dairy cow one year to produce 2218 lb. of 
human food, while the beef steer produced only 548 lb. in about 
two years. The cow producing 6000 lb. milk, produces 730 lb. 
of edible dry matter in a year. The sugar in milk is worth as 
much per pound for human food as ordinary sugar. 

Five Essential Points of a Good Dairy Cow. — In order that 
the value of a dairy cow may be rightly judged, the amount of 
her feed should be known, her milk should be weighed and tested 
for butter fat. It is not always possible to decide upon these 
points, so we must know what characteristics to look for in a 
cow which shows milk-producing capacity. There are five points 
that are essential to a good dairy cow. These are : 

A good constitution. 

Capacity for food. 

Proper temperament. 

Good blood circulation. 

Milk-producing ability. 



1 66 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



I. Constitution is indicated by a strong, large girth, broad 
head, box-shaped muzzle, and large, well-distended nostrils, A 
thin-chested, narrow, long-headed animal has not a good con- 
stitution ; an animal that has very small nostrils cannot take 
in large volumes of air, which is essential to a long Hfe. The 
average economic productive period of a dairy cow is 6 to 7 years. 




Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, Purdue University. 
Fig. 72. — Wedge shape as seen from the side. 



An extraordinary milk yield for one or two years is not sufficient. 
A cow with a good constitution will be valuable from 2 to 5 years 
longer than a cow with a poor constitution. 

2. If a cow is to be profitable, she must have a large capacity 
for food. Capacity for food is indicated by a large barrel and 
a long body. A cow with a short body and a small stomach 
girth measure cannot consume large quantities of food or produce 



DAIRYING 



167 



much milk. A cow measuring 34 inches from withers to hips, 
74 inches around the heart girth, and 88 inches around the 
barrel, has one and one-half times the capacity that a cow has 
that measures 30, 65, and 75 inches, respectively, in the same 
points. Short-ribbed, slab-sided, short-bodied cows can con- 
sume only small amounts of 
feed, and therefore can 
produce only small amounts 
of milk. 

3. Dairy temperament is 
essential to a good dairy 
cow. A cow with such a 
temperament is angular, 
triple wedge-shaped, and 
lacks flesh. A dairy cow 
that is well fleshed is not 
transforming enough food 
into milk, but is converting 
a lot of it into meat. This 
kind of cow is a beef-pro- 
ducing cow. The most eco- 
nomical milk producers are 
angular and skinny. They 
have prominent hip bones, 
poorly covered ribs, and well- 
defined vertebrae. The best 
milk-producing cow is triple 
wedge-shaped ; that is, from a side view she shows less depth 
of body at the front than she does at the rear. Secondly, 
viewed from front, she shows more width at hips than she does 
through the breast and chest. Thirdly, as we look downward 
and backward over the withers, the third wedge-shaped con- 




Courtesy of the Agricultural Extension Department, 
Purdue University. 



Fig. 73. 



Wedge shape as seen from above 
and behind. 



i68 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



formation may be seen. This type of cow is the best milk pro- 
ducer. This type has arisen because certain organs of the dairy 
cow perform more work than others. The digestive, milk- 
secreting, nervous, and circulatory systems are extremely active, 

and are therefore greatly de- 
veloped. 

In selecting cows for milk 
production, the type of cow 
here described is very impor- 
tant. It must be remembered, 
however, that not all cows of 
this type are good milk pro- 
ducers. Every cow is an in- 
dividual when we come to 
consider the amount of milk 
that she can be made to give. 
A cow of good type may be a 
poor milk producer, but, in 
general, the best milk pro- 
ducers are cows from the best 
type. Profitable dairying re- 
quires, first, that cows of the 
right type be selected, and 
second, that every cow be tested to find out her milk-producing 
capacity. If, then, the cows that produce little are disposed of, 
a good producing herd can be secured. 

To show the relation of dairy temperament and dairy form to 
economy of milk production, Haecker of the University of 
Minnesota divided cows into four groups according to type. 
The returns of different types are as follows: 




Courtesy of the Auricullurai Departmenl, Purdue 
University. 



Fig. 74- 



-Wedge shape as seen from the 
front. 



DAIRYING 



169 



Economy of Milk Production of Dairy and Beef Types 









Dry Matter Consumed 






Number 

OF 
ANttL-^LS 


Average 

Live 
Weight 








Feed Cost 


Types 


Daily 


Daily per 
1000 Lb. 
Live Wt. 


Per Pound 
Fat 


OF I Lb. 
Fat 






Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Cents 


Beef type . . 


3 


1240 


20.8 


16.7 


31-3 


17-5 


Less beef type 


4 


945 


20.4 


21.0 


26.4 


151 


Spare, but lack- 














ing depth of 














body . . . 


3 


875 


20.0 


23.0 


25-5 


14.6 


Dairy type 


12 


951 


21.9 


23.6 


21.2 


12. 1 




Fig. 75. — Beef and dairy t>'pe in outline. Compare iheir conformation and function. 



It will be observed that the cows of a beef type and beef 
temperament produced butterfat at a cost of 17.5 cents per 



lyo 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



pound, and that the dairy type produced an equal amount of 
butterfat at a cost of 12.1 cents per pound. 

4. Circulation. Just how the cow digests foods and converts 
it into milk is a topic too complicated to present here. Food 
must be transformed and conveyed by the digestive and circula- 




FiG. 76. — Examples of well-developed milk veins. 

tory systems before milk can be produced. " Good blood cir- 
culation is shown by a network of veins on the udder ; and by 
the size and number of the milk wells or holes in the abdomen 
through which these blood vessels pass, carrying the blood on its 
return to the lungs to be purified and to be pumped back again. 
Large milk wells also indicate good blood circulation. 



DAIRYING 



171 




Fig. 77. — Example of well-formed udders. Note network of veins. 

" Cows with small, short, straight milk veins, and only two 
small wells, show either that the blood circulation is small and 
sluggish, or that the nutrients are being conveyed to some other 
part of the body to be converted into some product other than 
milk and butterfat." 



172 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

5. Two factors which are essential to milk- producing ability 
are the proper form and texture of the udder. The udder 
should be large, wide, long, and fairly deep, but well held 
up, extending well up between the thighs and well to the 
front. An udder that lacks width and length but is deep is not 
well formed. It should be evenly quartered and symmetrical ; 
the teats should be of proper size, and evenly and well placed. 




Fig. 78. — A cross section of a cow's udder, showing the milk cistern, and milk cells. 
The size and number of openings in the udder determine its texture. 

The udder is supposed to manufacture all the constituents in 
milk except water. Butterfat, casein, and sugar are all formed 
in the udder. It must have, therefore, a great deal of interior 
milk-producing surface. There must be large milk cisterns, and 
a large number of milk cells, as indicated in the above figure. 
When these milk cisterns and milk cells are large and numerous, 
thousands in number, the empty udder is soft, pliable, elastic, 
and collapsed. It has great capacity for work and expansion, 
during the production of the milk. Hard, beefy udders have 
small milk cisterns, few and small milk cells, and their shape 
after milking is nearly the same as before. 



DAIRYING 173 

Constitution, capacity, temperament, circulation, and ability — 
these are, first of all, essential to milk production. Other points 
of equal importance, such as feeding, care, and management, cost 
to produce milk, housing, and aids to the highest milk production 
are discussed in later paragraphs. (See Exercises 2 and 3.) 

The Major Dairy Breeds. — The major dairy breeds are the 
Jerseys, Guernseys, Holstein-Friesians, and Ayrshires. 

I. Jerseys, a. Origin and History. The Jersey cattle are 
native to the Channel Islands, which are in the English Channel 
between England and France. Although the Jersey breed traces 
back many years, their real history dates back from about 1763 
to 1789. Since then their purity as a breed has been protected 
by law. In 1789, an act was passed that no cattle could be 
imported into the Island of Jersey unless they were to be slaugh- 
tered within 24 hours after their arrival. 

The Island of Jersey is about 11 miles long and 9 miles wide, 
and contains about 39,580 acres. From ten to twelve thousand 
cattle are kept upon it, however, or about one cow to every 2.2 
acres of land. 

In 1850, some Jersey cows were brought to Hartford, Connecti- 
cut. Since then many Jerseys have been imported into the 
United States, and now they are the most popular of all the dairy 
breeds because of their efficiency in producing rich milk, and 
because the American Jersey Cattle Club has advertised the good 
points of the breed. Large dairies of Jersey cattle are found in 
the United States, France, Canada, England, and Australia. 

b. Characteristics. The Jersey is the smallest of the main 
dairy breeds, weighing from 850 to 1000 pounds. They are fawn- 
like in color, with occasional white spots. The muzzle, tongue, 
and switch are generally black. They are usually considered 
the best dairy type, being angular and wedge-shaped. Their 
dairy temperament is, with few exceptions, typical of a perfect 



174 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




DAIRYING 



175 



dairy cow. This is shown by the fact that the Jersey seldom 
becomes fleshy when producing milk, for all of the food consumed 
is transformed into milk. The Jerseys, as a breed, are more 
sensitive and nervous than other breeds. When properly handled 
they become gentle, but when any unusual thing happens they 
are easily frightened. If Jerseys are not accustomed to them, 
the lives of children may be endangered by going into a lot where 
there are Jersey cattle. 

The Jersey is a poor producer of beef. Their ability to make 
gains is comparatively low, and their ability to dress out a high 
per cent of carcass is still less. 

c. The Jersey as a Milk Producer. The Jersey breed is not the 
most economical producer of quantity of milk. But they will 
produce more butterfat with the same amount of feed than any 
other breed. From a large number of butterfat tests, the fol- 
lowing averages have been found for the breeds named : * 



Jersey . . . 
Guernsey . . 
Devon . . . 
Shorthorn . . 

Ayrshire . . 
Holstein-Friesian 




Butterfat Test 

5-6 

5-3 
4.6 
4.4 
3-6 

3-4 



Jersey milk is rich, of a deep yellow color with large butterfat 
globules. Milk with large butterfat globules creams easily. 

The Jersey is a persistent milker and as a family cow it has 
scarcely an equal. A few yearly records of the leading Jerseys 
follow : 



' Cornell Experiment Station. 



176 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Name of Cow 


PouKDS Milk 


Pounds Butterfat 


Sophie 19th of Hood Farm . . . 

Spermfield Owl's Eva 

Eminent's Bess 

Jacoba Irene 


17,557 
16,457 
18,782 

17,253 


999 
993 
962 

952 



(See Exercises 4 and 5.) 

2. Guernseys, a. Origin and History. The Guernsey cattle 
were developed on the Island of Guernsey, another of the Channel 
Islands group just off the coast of France in the EngUsh Channel. 
The Island of Guernsey is about nine and one-half miles by six 
miles, and contains about 12,500 acres. Upon this island are 
kept 5000 to 8000 cattle. 

It is stated upon good authority that one hundred years ago 
the Guernseys and the Jerseys were almost the same in color 
and size. The purity of the Guernsey like the Jersey breed is 
now protected by law. 

Guernsey cattle were not introduced into the United States 
in large numbers until 1880. To-day the Guernseys are found 
extensively in New York, Massachusetts, Wisconsin, Pennsyl- 
vania, and some of the other leading dairy states. 

Although the Guernseys have been widely distributed, they 
are found only in small numbers in the United States, England, 
and Canada. Plumb says in his book, Types and Breeds of 
Farm Animals, that it has never been clear to him why the 
Guernseys have not attracted more attention in the United 
States. " It is a dairy breed of the highest merit, as repeated 
tests have shown ; yet it is quite limited in development and does 
not seem to get much foothold in some of our greatest dairy 
states, especially in the Mississippi Valley." 

b. Guernsey Characteristics. In general appearance the cattle 



DAIRYING 



177 




178 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

of this breed are about 100 pounds larger than the Jerseys, have 
coarser bones and features, and are nearly perfect in dairy type. 
Their color ranges from an orange to a lemon fawn, with white 
markings. The udder of the Guernsey is somewhat larger than 
that of the Jersey, is well held up, and extends further to the front. 
The skin secretions are very yellow. 

The cattle of this breed are slower and not so nervous, excit- 
able, and irritable in temperament as the Jerseys. 

c. Dairy Characteristics. The Guernsey cattle are persistent 
milkers, and in quality of milk produced they rank a close second 
to the Jerseys. Their milk is very yellow and has large fat 
globules. The butter made from Guernsey milk is very yellow. 

The records of a few leading Guernsey cows follow : 



Name of Cow 


Pounds of Milk 


Pounds Butterfat 


Murne Cowan 

May Rilma 

Spotswood Daisy Pearl .... 


24,008.0 
19. 673.0 
18,602.0 


1098.18 

1073.41 

957-38 



3. The Holstein-Friesian. a. Origin and History. The native 
home of the Holstein cattle, as they are usually called in the 
United States, is Holland, in the province of Friesland. For 
over 2000 years they have been bred there, and are therefore the 
oldest breed of cattle. From the ninth century to the present 
day, Holland has been a great producer and exporter of milk, 
butter, and cheese. 

A few Holstein cattle were imported into New York as early 
as 1795. They were not imported in large numbers until 1861. 
In 1873 the first Holstein Association was formed, known as the 
Holstein Herd Book Association, and in 1879 the Dutch Friesian 
Association was formed. These two were fused in 1885 under the 



DAIRYING 



179 







f^M 






------ ' ■■ ■•> 



i8o PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

name Holstein-Friesian. Although the Jersey breed was intro- 
duced into the United States first, and enthusiastically advertised, 
the Holstein cattle are at present largely used in the leading dairy 
states, namely, Wisconsin, New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, 
Illinois, Missouri, and Ohio. 

b. Holstein-Friesian Characteristics. In general appearance 
the Holstein cattle are not so typically a dairy form as are the 
Jerseys, but approach slightly the beef type. They are the larg- 
est dairy breed, males weighing from 1800 to 2000 pounds and 
females from 1200 to 1600. There has been and is a tendency 
toward the development of Holstein cattle resembUng the dairy 
type. This has been due largely to the opinions of judges passed 
on Holstein cattle at fairs. The color is black and white, vary- 
ing in different locahties. American breeders generally prefer 
cows with more than one-half white. The udder of the Hol- 
steins is large, U-shaped, and usually very deep but not extended. 
The Holstein cattle are docile, gentle, and easily handled. 

c. Dairy Characteristics. The Holstein cattle, as a breed, 
produce quantity of milk more economically than do the cows of 
any other breed ; that is, with a given amount of feed they will 
produce more milk than any other cattle. The milk of the 
Holstein cattle is lighter in color, and contains less fat than the 
milk of other breeds of cattle. The small butterfat globules in 
Holstein milk do not rise to the top as easily nor as rapidly as 
the large butterfat particles in Jersey and Guernsey milk. It 
is for this reason that milk from Holstein cows sustains a greater 
loss of butterfat in the skim milk than the milk from other 
breeds, especially where the gravity system of creamage is used. 
Machine separation is usually efficient even if the fat globules 
are small. 

Since the butterfat from the Holstein is lighter in color than 
that of the Jerseys and Guernseys, the cream and butterfat from 



DAIRYING i8i 

this breed is also lighter. Some people think that a light- 
colored butter is not rich, and will not pay so high a price for it as 
for darker butters. Holstein cattle, because of the large quantity 
of milk produced and also because the ^ a lar e Butterfat oiobuie 
fats and the solids not fat are well bal- • Hoistein Fat oiobuies 
anced, are well adapted to the con- fig. 82. — showing the com- 
dition in which milk is retailed to the f^^SS^fruie,"' F^.tbd." 
consumer. Holstein milk is easily di- range from ^57^ to j^ 

,11 iii_ii.riiT_i inch in diameter. 

gested because the butterfat globules are 

small and expose more surface to the digestive fluids. Holstein 
milk is better suited for children's use than the milk produced 
by other cattle, for the reasons that the butterfat particles are 
smaller on the whole and the total solids in the milk are usually 
less, making the milk easily digestible. The popularity of Hol- 
stein milk is increasing, especially where whole milk is wanted 
for family use. 

d. Methods of Handling Dairy Cattle in Holland. Much of 
the country of Holland is below the level of the sea, which is held 
back by extensive dikes and embankments. The land is well 
drained and very fertile ; although it is seldom sold, it is valued 
at from $1200 to $2000 per acre. The fertile soil of Holland 
produces a luxuriant growth of grass and hay, on which the cattle 
graze from May to October. The people of Holland very rarely 
feed grain to their cattle. This diet of grass and Httle grain 
is probably the reason why Holstein cattle give such a large 
quantity of milk and why the cream is not so rich in butterfat. 

From October to May the cows are kept in a stable adjoining 
the house, from which doors lead into the stalls. This is the 
reason that Holstein cattle are so gentle. The stables are kept 
very clean and sanitary. In summer the cows are not driven 
home to be milked, but are milked in the pasture, so that the cow 
will not grow tired. The people of Holland were the first to form 



l82 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



associations to test the producing power of cows and to set a 
standard. 

e. Advanced Registry Official (A. R. O.)- The Babcock Test 
.was invented about 1890 in Wisconsin. New York was the first 
to make practical use of it. The people of New York began 
to organize cow-testing associations in 1894 and set up the 
following minimum requirements for advanced registry for 
Holstein cows : 

2-year-old cow must produce 7.2 pounds fat in 7 days 
3-year-old cow must produce 8.8 pounds fat in 7 days 
4-year-old cow must produce 10.4 pounds fat in 7 days 
5-year-old cow must produce 12.0 pounds fat in 7 days 



The above tests were made by qualified men sent out from the 
experiment stations. Although the test extended only over 
seven days, it paved the way for the formation of the best types 
of cow-testing associations in which the tests are made over the 
entire lactation period.^ 

To sum up, Holstein cows have a vigorous constitution, quiet 

' The butterfat requirements for the niajor dairy breeds for A. R. O. are as 
follows : 





Jersey. Guernsey, 
AND Holstein 


Ayrshire 


Brown Swiss 


Age 


Fat 


Per Cent 


Fat 


Per Cent 


Fat 


Per Cent 


Two . . 


250-5 


70 


214.3 


66 


222.0 


66 


Three . . 


287.0 


80 


236.0 


73 


238.4 


70 


Four . . 


323-5 


90 


279.0 


87 


271.4 


80 


Five . . 


360.0 


100 


322.0 


100 


304.1 


90 


Six . . . 










337-0 


100 



The per cent indicates what amount of fat may be expected from a cow during 
any year of the milking period. 



DAIRYING 



183 



temperament, produce an abundance of milk, are free from 
disease, and have a good family history. 

The records of a few leading Holstein cows follow : 



Name of Cow 


Pounds Milk 


Pounds Butterfat 


Duchess Skylark Ormsby .... 
Finderne Pride Johanna Rue . . . 
Pontiac Clothilde De Kol .... 
Colantha 4th's Johanna .... 


27,761 
28,403 

25,318 
27,432 


1205 

1 1 76 

1017 

998 



4. Ayr shires, a. Origin and History. This breed of Scotch 
dairy cattle was developed in the county of Ayrshire, Scotland. 
Although the Ayr- 
shire cattle were 
mentioned in Scot- 
tish literature as early 
as 1750, not until 
about 1825 to 1850 
did the breed assume 
definite characteris- 
tics. Holsteins, Dur- 
hams, and Jerseys 
were used as the 
foundation sources 
of this breed. Ayr- 
shires were imported 
into the United 
States as early as 1822 




Fig. 83. — An Ayrshire cow, showing the conformation, 
red and white color, upturning horns, and well-formed 
udder that stamp this breed. 



but on account of small teats their 
popularity decreased and the breed was soon lost. Within 
recent years a considerable number have been imported, but 
because of the fact that they were not advertised they have not 
been extensively used. 



1 84 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The Ayrshires are mainly distributed in Scotland, Canada, 
Australia, the United States, Russia, Norway, and Sweden. 
They are better adapted than other breeds to severe climates, 
scant feed, and rough land, and are, therefore, generally found in 
such places. In the United States they are found in New England 
and the Ozark Plateau. 

b. Characteristics. Ayrshire cattle are red, brown, and white 
in color. They are much larger than the Jerseys but smaller 
than the Holsteins. They are good milkers, but do not produce 
as much milk as the Holsteins, nor as rich milk as the Jerseys. 
It is largely because of their failure to excel in one of these two 
points that the popularity of the Ayrshires has not been greater. 
The horns of this breed turn outward and upward and are 
white with black tips. Their udders are uniform and almost per- 
fect. They are well held up, are wide, and extend well forward 
on the body. Plumb states that the udder development of the 
modern Ayrshires presents a higher average perfection of form 
than does that of any other breed. Their temperament is 
good. 

The milk of Ayrshire cattle contains a great deal of casein. 
In their native home in Ayrshire the milk is used almost entirely 
in the manufacture of cheese. 

The leading records of the Ayrshires up to the present are as 
follows : 



Name 


Pounds Milk 


Pounds Butterfat 


Auchenbrain Brown Kate 4th . . 
Garclaugh May Mischief .... 

Lily of Willowmoor 

Auchenbrain Yellow Kate 3d . . 


23,022 
25,328 
22,106 
21,123 


918 

897 
889 

888 



(See Exercise 6.) 



DAIRYING 



185 



The Cost of Milk Production. — It is impossible to handle this 
large topic exhaustively in this small treatment. The discussion 
here is merely suggestive. Some further points may be worked 
out by teacher, pupil, and farmer. 

Large Production Lowers the Cost. — A cow that yields 3600 
pounds of milk per year does not produce milk as cheaply as a 
cow that produces 10,000 pounds per year. The first figure 
given is approximately the average production of the dairy 
cows of the United States. 

Cost of Milk from Cows Producing Different Amounts 



Pounds Milk per 
Year 


Cost to Produce ioo 
Pounds of Milk 


Cost of Producing 
A Quart of Milk 


3,000 


^1.70 


3-3 cts. 


4,000 


1-^5 


2.5 


5,000 


1. 00 


2.0 


6,000 


•83 


1-7 


7,000 


•71 


1-3 


8,000 


.62 


1.2 


9,000 


•55 


I.I 


10,000 


•50 


I.O 



The assumption that it costs $50.00 to keep a dairy cow for one 
year is the basis of the foregoing table. We have learned that 
the dairy type of cow produces milk at less cost than the beef 
type. The dairy cow is angular, showing that she transforms 
nearly all the food she eats into milk ; the beef cow is fat, 
showing that she transforms all her food into fat. The cost 
of milk production is from 25 to 30 per cent less from dairy 
types than from beef types. 

Cows Freshening in the Fall Produce Milk More Cheaply. — 
It is a well-known fact that cows freshening in the fall produce 



i86 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



from 25 to 35 pounds of butterfat more per year than cows 
freshening in the springtime. This is because the cow has two 
periods, one in the fall and another in the spring, when the milk 
flow is large. The increase in butterfat is equal to an increase 
of from 600 to 800 pounds of milk. This is approximately from 
one-sixth to one-fifth of the total production. Therefore, if it 
costs $50 to keep a cow for one year, the cost of milk pro- 
duction will be decreased from about 16 to 20 per cent by cows 
calving in the fall. 

Production Covering a Long Number of Years Lessens the 
Cost of Milk Production. — The cost of producing calves and 
heifers until they are 24 months old has been found, by Bennett 
and Cooper of Wisconsin, with 117 calves to be as follows : 

Cost of Rearing Dairy Heifers in Wisconsin * 





Cost to One Year 


Cost to Two Years 


I. 

? 


Initial value of calf 

Feed 


$ 7-04 
24.67 

4-45 
6.36 

M2.52 
3.00 

^39-52 


$ 7-04 
40.83 


3- 
4- 


Labor 


7.81 

13-73 

^69.81 

8.00 
^61.41 


Other costs 

Gross cost 

Credit for manure .... 
Net cost 



A cow giving milk only from the time she is 24 to 36 months 
old would have to produce an extremely large quantity of milk 
to pay for the cost of raising the heifer, and the cost of keeping 
the cow during the first years of milk production. But the pro- 
duction of milk over a long number of years reduces the cost of 
milk production per year. The following table shows twelve 
years of profitable milk production : 

* Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 



DAIRYING 187 

Record of Cylene Jewel (University of Minnesota Cow) ^ 



Year 


Milk 
Pounds 


butterfat 
Test 


BUTTERFAT 

Pounds 


Lactation 
Period 
Weeks 


1902-03 
1904-05 
1905-06 
1906-07 
1907-08 
1908-09 
1909-10 
1910-II 
1911-12 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1914-15 






' 


6,413.6 

6,231-3 
8,061.9 

7,373-9 
11,067.8 

7,487-3 
11,853.8 
11,436.0 
12,704.7 
10,713.1 
12,697.9 
12,811.1 


3-28 
3-i6 
3.21 

3-31 
3-24 
2.99 

2-93 
3-28 
3.16 
3.02 

3-93 
2.89 


210.24 

197.20 
258.86 
244-33 
358-59 
224.25 
346.99 

375-39 

402.05 
323.06 

499-63 
370.09 

3810.68 

317-556 


55 
52 
42 

44 
52 
42 

51 

55 
46 

46 
44 

55 


Total 
Average 


118,852.4 
9,904.364 


38.40 
3.20 


584 
48.66 



Keeping accurate records such as the above, does more to put 
dairying on a sound basis than any other one thing. (See Ex- 
ercises 7 and 8.) 

Treating with kindness, being regular in feeding a balanced 
ration, providing good, clean, sanitary quarters, supplying plenty 
of clean, pure, medium warm water, and allowing the cow a rea- 
sonable amount of exercise, raising the calves on skim milk, — 
all aid in the economical production of milk. These topics will 
be touched in a later discussion. 

Composition of Milk and its Products. — As we have said 
before, milk is of such a composition that it can nourish all tissues 
of the body more nearly than any other food. For this reason 
it is the only food for many young animals for about the first 



^ Courtesy of University of Minnesota. 



i88 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

eight months. The tissues of the body are made up of water, 
mineral matter, fatty tissue, and protein tissue. These are all 
found in milk in such proportion that every tissue of the entire 
body may be well nourished. There is no other single food 
that will sustain life longer. The composition of other foods 
may well be compared with that of milk, for milk gives a good 
basis on which the value of other foods may be estimated. 



The Average Composition of Milk 



Water 

Fat 

Casein and albumen 
Milk sugar . . . 

Ash 

Total 



87.4 per cent 
3.7 per cent 
3.2 per cent 
5.0 per cent 
0.7 per cent 



loo.o per cent 



According to a Federal law, milk must contain 8.5 per cent 
of solids not fat, and 3.25 per cent or more fat. 

In order that milk may be of the best quality it must be pro- 
duced by healthy cows under sanitary conditions. The cow, 
the surroundings, the utensils, and the milker must all be free 
from dirt and disease. Bacterial life in milk may be destroyed 
by pasteurization. The germs of tuberculosis, diphtheria, and 
scarlet fever may be destroyed in this way, also, but it is much 
better to produce pure milk. 

In the modern creamery, milk is skimmed with separators. 
The skim milk remaining contains all the constituents given in 
the table excepting the butterfat. Under farm methods of 
skimming about 0.3 to 0.6 per cent butterfat remains in the skim 
milk. What is the value of skim milk ? W. D. Hoard, editor of 
Hoard's Dairyman, says : " It is well established that one hundred 
pounds of skim milk will make 5 pounds of growth when fed to 
pigs weighing from 75 to 150 pounds. Multiply this growth by 



DAIRYING 189 

the price of pork and you have the minimum value of the skim 
milk. Feed it in conjunction with corn and you add 20 per cent 
to its value or cash return, all as a result of the combination." ^ 

Cream is the part of whole milk which contains a larger pro- 
portion of butterfat than the whole milk. According to Federal 
law, cream must contain not less than 18 per cent of butterfat. 
Butterfat rises to the top because it is lighter than whole milk. 
The specific gravity of whole milk is 1.029 ^o 1.033; water, 
i.oo; and butterfat, about 0.93. 

The amount of cream lost depends upon the system used in 
skimming. In the shallow pan system, about 20 per cent of 
the cream is lost. The skimmed milk retains about 0.5 of one 
per cent of the fat in the whole milk. In the deep-setting sys- 
tem where deep cans are used, only about 0.2 to 0.3 of one per 
cent of the fat is lost. By the use of centrifugal separators, 
almost all of the butterfat is taken out of the milk. However, 
when the skim milk is tested for butterfat, from .02 to 0.5 per 
cent of butterfat is usually found ; sometimes more. Butter 
has about the following composition : 

Butterfat 80 to 88 per cent 

Salt , . • I to 4 per cent 

Water 10 to 16 per cent 

Federal law provides that the maximum quantity of moisture 
in butter cannot exceed 16 per cent. Ordinarily butter has about 
82^ per cent butterfat, 14^ per cent moisture, and about 2 to 3 
per cent salt. By an act of Congress, May 9, 1902, butter may 
contain added coloring matter. The best churning temperature 
ranges from 50° to 60° Fahr. The extreme temperatures for 
churning are from 46° to 80° Fahr. 

A hundred pounds of butterfat will yield about no to 120 

^ Wisconsin Buttermaker's Association Report of 191 2. 



ipo 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



pounds of butter, because of the addition of salt and water. 
The number of pounds of butter yielded above the number of 
pounds of butterfat is known as the overrun. It is upon the 
overrun that the creamery man depends mainly for his profits. 

The composition of cheese varies a great deal, but the average 
for full milk is about as follows : water, 34 per cent ; fat, 35 per 
cent; casein, 28 per cent; and salt, 3 per cent. Cheese is an 
exceedingly nutritious food. Butter excels cheese in flavor, but 
cheese is a better balanced food. (See Exercise 9.) 

The product remaining after the fat and the casein have 
been taken out of milk is whey. It, also, has some food value 
for animals. 

Feeding for Milk Production. — One of the great problems for 
the dairyman to solve is the question of converting vegetable 
feeds into milk. To do this best, he must know the composition 
of the dairy cow's body, the milk she is to produce, and the 
digestible composition of feeding stuffs. The price of feeds is an 
important factor in the economical aspect of milk production. 
These points can be discussed only in a brief way. 

Composition of the Dairy Cow's Body, and of the Milk Pro- 
duced. — The author was unable to find any statement as to the 
chemical composition of the dairy cow's body. The composition 
of a half-fat steer will provide, however, a fair estimate of the 
approximate composition of the dairy cow's body. 

Composition of Half-fat Steer and Milk 





Water 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Protein 


N. R. 


Fat steer . . 
Milk .... 


54-0 
87.4 


22.6 

3-7 


0.0 

8.7 


17.8 
3-2 


1 : 1.2 
i: 5-3 



DAIRYING 



191 



In the production of milk, the body of the dairy cow must be 
first supported ; then, in addition, food must be provided to 
produce the milk given. The food, if it is to produce the best 
results, must contain in proper proportions the same constituents 
that are found in the dairy cow's body and in her milk. It is for 
this reason that an abundance of water, some carbohydrates, and 
protein must be fed in order to get the best results from a dairy 
cow. 

Spring Conditions Make Most Milk. Why? — Every farmer 
welcomes spring. The temperature, the abundance of succulent 
grass, the moderate exercise, the comfortable surroundings, and 
the balanced ration, and the drinking of a lot of clean pure 
water, — all are conducive to the highest efhciency in milk 
production. There is nothing superior to blue grass, mixed 
with white clover, for milk production, because the cattle eat 
an abundance of this feed ; it is palatable and contains the food 
elements which make it a well-balanced ration. Compare the 
composition of blue grass and white clover with the dairy cow's 
body and her milk. 

Composition of Blue Grass and WmxE Clover 





Water 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Protein 


N. R. 


Blue grass . 
White clover . 


68.4 

78.2 


0.6 
0.5 


14.8 
9.6 


2-3 
3-1 


1:7.0 
1:3-5 



It is quite probable that a small amount of concentrates fed 
along with the blue grass and white clover would increase the 
milk flow, but not the economical production of milk, except in 
case of short pastures. In addition to the pasture grass, an 
abundance of pure, clean, moderately warm water should be 



192 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



provided. These summer conditions are conducive to the high- 
est milk production. 

Winter Feeding for Milk Production. — To produce the best 
milk in winter, summer conditions should be maintained as 
nearly as possible. The cows should be given an abundance of 
green, or nearly green, feed, a well-balanced ration, an abundance 
of water, and comfortable surroundings. 

Well-kept silage, sugar beets, and mangel-wurzels furnish a 
feed that corresponds as nearly as possible to green feed.^ Silage 
is one of the principal feeds used by dairymen. Silage gives 
bulk to the feed, is palatable, causes the cow to eat and drink 
more, and is probably the cheapest substitute for green feed. 
Silage, however, is not a balanced feed, because it contains too large 
an amount of carbohydrates and too small an amount of protein. 

Composition of Corn Silage (from Well-matured Corn) 





Dry 

Matter 


Water 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Protein 


N. R. 


Silage . . . 


26.3 


73-7 


0.7 


I5-0 


I.I 


1:15.1 



The nutritive ratio of corn silage is as i : 15.1. This shows that 
it contains too much carbohydrate material in proportion to the 
protein content. The nutritive ratio of blue grass is i : 7.0 
and of white clover and blue grass combined is as i : 5.3. An 
equal amount of white clover and blue grass makes an excellent 
ration for a dairy cow. Its nutritive ratio is right, but the nutri- 
tive ratio of corn silage, i :i5.i, is too wide. 

Bran, red clover, alfalfa, soybean hay, cowpea hay, or cotton- 
seed meal may be used to supply the deficiency of protein in the 
corn silage. 

* Read again the paragraphs on silage in the chapter on Corn. 



DAIRYING 



193 



Digestible Composition of Corn Silage and Other Feeds Richer 

IN Protein 





Dry 

Matter 


Water 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Protein 


N. R. 


Silage . . . 


26.3 


73-7 


0.7 


15.0 


I.I 


i: 15. 1 


Wheat bran . 


89.9 


10. 1 


3-0 


41.6 


12.5 


1:3-9 


Alfalfa . . . 


91.4 


8.6 


0.9 


39-0 


10.6 


1:3-9 


Cowpea hay . 


90-3 


9-7 


I.O 


33-7 


I3-I 


i: 2.7 


Prime cotton- 














seed meal . 


92.2 


7.8 


7-9 


24-3 


33-4 


i: 1.3 



It will be seen that the above feeds contain a large amount of 
protein material. It is this which helps in balancing corn silage 
as a ration. 

The suggestions of a few practical rations will be in order here. 
For a cow weighing 1000 pounds, producing 25 pounds of milk, 
testing 4 per cent butterfat, the following rations may be used. 
If the farmer has not all the feeds suggested, other feeds may be 
supplied that will furnish the same food constituents. 

Digestible Composition of a Ration^ 





Parts of ioo 
Pounds of Each 


Dry 

Matter 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Protein 


N. R. 


Corn sUage 
25 lb. . . 

Clover hay 
10 lb. . . 

Corn 4 lb. 

Bran 4 lb. . . 


I" of 100 lb. . 
Yq of IOO lb. . 

2^ of 100 lb. . 

■23^ of IOO lb. . 


Pounds 

6.6 

8.7 

3-98 

3-99 


Pounds 

.02 

.18 
.18 

.12 


Pounds 

3-75 

3-93 
2.68 
1.68 


Pounds 
.27 

.76 
-30 
-50 




Totals . 


23.27 
30.00 


-50 

-6S 


12.04 
13.00 


1.83 
2.80 


1:7-3 
1:5-3 


Requirements 





1 Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feedings. 



194 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

From the above it may be concluded that the ration suggested 
is too low in all of its constituents and that dry matter and 
protein are especially lacking. The nutritive ratio of the ration 
is too wide, indicating that a larger amount of protein should be 
fed. 

A few other good dairy rations are given : 

r Corn silage .... 30 lb. f Corn silage . . . . 30 lb. 

^ Bran 10 lb. | Alfalfa 11 lb. 

I Cottonseed meal . . 2 lb. I Cottonseed meal . . 2 lb. 

Corn silage 30 lb. 

Soybean hay .... 10 lb. N. R. i : 5.7 

Bran 10 lb. 

When production of milk is considered, regardless of cost, the 
composition of the ration fed should be right. But when the 
production is considered from an economical viewpoint, and this 
is the practical viewpoint, the cost of the feeds making the ration 
should be carefully figured. 

The following method of figuring the price (not the feeding 
value) of feeds may be suggestive. Current prices should be 
used in figuring the cost of rations. 



Prices or a Few Feeds 



Feed 


Estimated 

Cost 
PER Ton 


Cost 

PER 1000 

Pounds 


Cost 

PER 100 

Pounds 


Cost 
PER Pound 


Corn silage .... 
Clover hay .... 
Cottonseed meal . . 
Bran 


$3-50 

13-50 
30.00 
22.00 


$ 1-75 

6.75 

15.00 

11.00 


?o.i75 
0.675 
1.50 
1. 10 


^0.00175 
0.00675 

O.OIS 

O.OII 



(See Exercises 8 and 9.) 



DAIRYING 



195 



Summary. — Dairying is one of our most important farm 
operations. It is adaptable to high-priced land, enriches the 
soil, and brings a steady income. The dairy cow is the most 
economical producer of human food. The Jerseys, Guernseys, 
Holsteins, and Ayrshires are the major dairy breeds. Every 
cow must have a good constitution, a good temperament, a 
good circulation, and milk -producing capacity if she is to be a 
profitable cow. 

A balanced ration at the lowest cost is essential to economic 
milk production. Conditions similar to those in summer, such as 
an abundance of palatable, green, well-balanced feed, an agree- 
able temperature, a moderate amount of exercise, and much 
water are conducive to the highest milk production. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Local Importance of Dairy Cattle. — Make a survey of the dairy 
cattle of the school district. Fill out a table somewhat as follows. Leave 
a permanent record in the school. Assign three or four days before the 
results are to be reported. 



Name of 
Owner 



Breed 



Number of 
Cows 



Daily Gal- 
lons Milk 



Pounds of Milk (Mul- 
tiply Gal. by 8.58)1 



2. Comparison of Two Dairy Cows. — Compare two dairy cows from the 
standpoints of constitution, capacity, temperament, circulation, and ability. 

3. Judging Dairy Cows. — Judge according to score card the best types 
of dairy breeds obtainable in your neighborhood. This exercise will require 
several hour periods. 

1 A gallon of milk weighs 8. 58 pounds. 



196 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




DAIRYING 



197 



Dairy Cattle — Score Card 



Scale of Points 



A. General Appearance — 22 Points 
Weight, estimated. . . .lb. ; actual. . . lb. 
Form, wedge shape from front, side, and top 
Quality, hair fine, silky ; skin mellow, loose, 

medium, thick, yellow, not fleshy; bone 
fine 

Dairy temperament, angular, not fat, totally 
inclined to transform food into milk . . 

Disposition, gentle, docile 

B. He.\d and Neck — 8 Points 

Muzzle, broad ; nostrils large 

Eyes of good size, mild, bright 

Face, lean, fine, shapely 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, not coarse, size, medium, inside yellow 

Neck, fine, rather long, well set on shoulders 
and head ; top line slightly curved ; throat 
clean ; dewlap light 

C. Fore Qu.\rters — 5 Points 

Withers, lean, thin, not rough 

Shoulders, light, oblique 

Legs, straight, short ; shank, fine ; feet, well 
placed 

D. Body — 17 Points 

Chest, deep, low, full ; girth, large, . . . .inches 

Crops, not deeply depressed 

Ribs, long, broad, well sprung, wide apart . 
Back, lean, strong, "spinal processes" well 

defined 

Stomach, deep; girth, large, inches 

Loin, broad, long, level, last rib to hip. .inches 
Flanks, low, deep from hip down .... 

E. Hind Quarters — 14 Points 

Hips, wide apart 

Rump, broad, level ; long, ... .inches . . . 
Pin bones (or thurls), high, wide apart . . . 
Thighs, thin, roomy, long, well carried . . . 
Legs, straight, short, wide apart ; shank, fine 
Tail, long, fine, reaching hocks, switch good . 

F. Udder — 34 Points 

Front udder, carried well forward, full, thick, 
soft, mellow within ; quarters, even . . . 

Hind udder, full in form, well up behind, good 
width, mellow, even 

Milk veins, large, long, elastic, tortuous . . 

Milk wells, large 

Teats, 2 1 to 3 inches long, good size, well 
placed 

Total 



Score — Female 



O (U 



198 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



4. Language Exercise on Jersey and Holstein Characteristics. — Write 
in a brief story the characteristics of the Jersey and Holstein cattle. This 
may be an exercise in language work. 

5. Making Babcock Test with Babcock Tester. — With Babcock Tester 
test several samples of whole milk. (An eight bottle closed tester is best for 

school use. Open testers are inaccurate and 
dangerous.) 

Directions. — First get a good sample of 
milk by pouring milk back and forth from 
one vessel into another several times. 

Fill milk pipette up to mark, 17.6 c.c. of 
milk. Pour the milk into the whole milk 
test bottle. Then add 17.5 c.c. of sulphuric 
acid (sp. gr. 1.82) ; with a whirhng motion 
mix milk and acid thoroughly. Whirl in 
tester for five minutes. Then fill bottles 
about up to the base of the neck with warm 
water. (Temperature about 150° Fahr.) 
Whirl for three minutes. Then fill bottles 
well up on the graduations with warm water. 
Whirl for one minute. Read butterfat 
test. 




Fig. 85. — Dr. S. M. Babcock, 
the inventor of the Babcock Test, 
which aids the dairyman to de- 
termine whether a cow is produc- 
ing butterfat economically. 



6, Testing Skim Milk and Buttermilk. — 

Test some skim milk and buttermilk in the 
same manner as indicated in Exercise 5. 

7. Finding Value of Milk and Butter 
Produced by Cylene Jewel. — Figure the 
value of the milk produced by Cylene Jewel 

(page 187) at 20 cents per gallon. Also the value of the butterfat at 30 
cents per pound. 

8. Rations of a Dairy Cow. — Get from your parents or from a neighbor 
the ration fed to a dairy cow, and figure its cost. Have pupils put these on 
the board. Correlate such examples with the arithmetic work. 

9. Record of a Dairy Cow for Two Months. — Keep the number of pounds 
of milk produced and test of a milch cow for two months. Weigh and 
test milk produced the first and fifteenth day of each of two months. Keep 
your record. 



CHAPTER XIII 



SWINE PRODUCTION 




Wild Swine. — It is reported upon good authority that there 
were about twenty species of wild hogs. The wild boar is prob- 
ably the immediate ancestor of 
our domestic swine. He was tall, 
slender, deficient in sides and rear 
quarters, and had heavy shoul- 
ders. The wild boar had at least 
three means of protection : he 
was a fleet runner ; his long tusks 
were good lighting implements ; 
and his skin and hair were heavy. 
Wild hogs liked moist, damp, 
warm places best. They sought 
places near streams where the 
underbrush was dense, where 
herbs, roots, insects, and refresh- 
ing waters abounded. " Root, hog, or die," was a natural act of 
the wild hog. By rooting, they secured the foods they needed, — 
roots, herbs, insects, and worms. Domestic hogs likewise root 
up the pasture to secure the food they crave and need. Corn- 
fed hogs will root up the entire pasture in the spring to get 
worms and roots. These furnish an additional amount of pro- 
Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises at the close of this chapter are : 
Hogs of different breeds to score. 

199 



Fig. 



Courtesy of Orange Judd Co. 

86. — Wild boar — ancestors of all 
modern breeds of swine. 



200 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



tein substance, which aids in building up bone, muscle, and 
tissue. Swine that are fed a well-balanced ration w^ill usually 
not root up large areas. 

The Swine-producing States. — While hogs are produced in 
every state of the United States, the states of the " corn belt " 
are the ones that furnish the surplus of swine products. The 
ten leading swine states, in numbers and percentage of swine 
produced for one year, are as follows : ^ 



0% 



5% 



10% 



15% 



IOWA 


8,069,000 


MISSOURI 


4,505.000 


ILLINOIS 


4,489,000 


NEBRASKA 


4,2G6,00e 


INDIANA 


4,107,000 


OHIO 


3,713,000 


TEXAS 


3,197,000 


KANSAS 


2,815,000 


GEORGIA 


2,348.000 


WISCONSIN 


2.142.000 


REST OF U.S. 





3.3% 



H C.6% 
■ 0.5% 
16.2% 
i6.1% 



15.4% 



5% 
% 



13.3% 



2.9% 
41.1% 

Gi^PH 7. The leading states in swine production. 

About 59 per cent of all the hogs produced in the United States 
are raised in the above ten states. The average number of hogs 
per farm in Iowa is 35, and in other states it ranges from that 
down to less than one per farm.^ (See Exercise i.) 

Advantage in Pork Production. — i. The first advantage of 
pork production is the rapidity with which swine multiply. 



1 Data for 1916, taken from United States Year Book of Agriculliire. 

2 igio census. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 201 

Sheep, cattle, and horses have usually less than one offspring 
per year. From ten to fourteen pigs are frequently produced 
in a year from one pair of hogs. 

2. Hogs require less feed to produce a hundred pounds of 
meat than do other farm animals. From 500 to 600 pounds of 
corn, or its equivalent, will produce 100 pounds of pork, while 
in the case of a steer it requires from 1000 to iioo pounds of corn 
to produce 100 pounds of beef, and from 800 to 900 pounds of 
feed to produce 100 pounds of mutton. However, sheep and 
cattle consume feeds of a different nature, and for that reason 
may make more economic gains. 

3. Hogs dress out a higher percentage of carcass, as shown 
by the following comparison : 

Animal Per Cent Dressed 

Carcass 

Swine 7o~77 

Steers 60-66 

Sheep 50-55 

4. A fourth advantage in pork production arises from the fact 
that swine consume large quantities of feeds that otherwise 
would be wasted. In the cattle feed lots, hogs eat the corn 
that the steers leave. From 150 to 300 pounds of hogs may 
profitably follow a thousand-pound steer that is on a full-fed corn 
ration. On the dairy farm, skim milk, buttermilk, and whey 
are excellent feed for swine. Insects and the grass and roots 
along streams and fences are eaten by swine. 

5. A fifth advantage in pork production is that instead of 
hauling from 500 to 600 pounds of corn to market only 100 
pounds of pork need be hauled. 

6. The fertility of the soil may, by proper farm manage- 
ment, be maintained where hogs are raised. (See Exercises 2 
and 3.) 



202 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Economic Pork Production. — Young pigs put on more weight 
with less feed than do old large hogs. This is shown in the table 
below, which tabulates average results at American Experiment 
Stations, where more than 2200 hogs were fed in over 500 
feeding trials. In order to balance the ration in these trials, 
skim milk and whey were provided as a part of the feed. 
Six pounds of skim milk and twelve pounds of whey were counted 
equivalent to one pound of concentrates. 



Relation of Weight of Pigs to Feed Used and the Amount of Gains 
Made by Pigs of Different Weights 



Weight of Pigs 


Actual 
Average 
Weight 


Number of 

Animals 

Fed 


Average 

Feed Eaten 

PER Day 


Feed Eaten 
Daily per 
100 Lb. Live 

Weight 


Average 

Gain 
per Day 


Feed per 

100 Lb. 

Gain 


Pounds 






Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 




15-50 • • 


38 


174 


2.2 


6.0 


0.8 


293 


50-100 






78 


417 


3-4 


4-3 


0.8 


400 


100-150 






128 


495 


4.8 


3-8 


i.I 


437 


1 50-200 






174 


489 


5-9 


3-5 


1.2 


482 


200-250 






226 


300 


6.6 


2.9 


1-3 


498 


250-300 






271 


223 


7-4 


2.7 


1-5 


511 


300-350 






320 


105 


7-5 


2.4 


1.4 


535 



From the above table, 174 pigs that weighed on an average of 
38 pounds put on 100 pounds of gain with 293 pounds of feed ; 
and 105 hogs, weighing on an average 320 pounds, put on 100 
pounds of gain with 535 pounds of feed. Why such a large 
difference? Because it requires more feed to maintain a 320- 
pound hog than it does to maintain a 38-pound pig. Since 
young hogs make greater gains with less feed than do older hogs, 
the practice has become quite general in recent times to market 
hogs when they are from six to eight months old, and weigh from 
175 to 225 pounds. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 



203 



A second factor in reducing the cost of pork production is an 
" All Year Hog Pasture." Such a plan was most excellently 
suggested by Mr. Sam Jordan when County Farm Advisor 
of Pettis County, Missouri. 



All Year Hog Pasture 



Lot I — Three Acres 
Sow to rye early in the fall. 
Pasture from about Dec. 15th to 
the last of May. Plow under and 
sow to soybeans. Pasture soybeans 
as soon as they begin to ripen, until 
all are eaten. 


Lot III — Two Acres 

Sow to rape about May ist. 

Pasture from last of June to 
middle of August, when hogs are 
put back on Lot II. Pasture again 
when hogs are done with soybeans 
on Lot I, until rye is ready on Lot 
II. 




Water 
Tank 








Lot II — Three Acres 

Sow oats and rape in early sp 
to be pastured when hogs ar 
moved from the rye on Lot I 
last of June. 

Pasture again from middle of 
until soybeans are ready. Re 
hogs to soybean field, Lot I 
plow and sow rye. This rye m 
pastured from Dec. 15 to folk 
spring. 


)ring, 
e re- 
until 

Aug. 
move 
and 
ay be 
wing 


Lot IV — Two Acres 

Permanent pastures of blue grass 
and white clover or alfalfa. 

This is to be used as a reserve 
for such times as other lots might 
not be ready or could not be used. 



" This ten acres," Mr. Jordan says, " should carry from 50 
to 75 grown hogs, depending on the quality of the soil, the season, 
and the supplementary feed. If this plan is followed and about 
a half -grain ration fed, pork can be produced for about one-half 
of what it can be produced when nothing but grain is fed. If 



204 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



we can sell hogs for 8 cents per pound and it costs 8 cents a pound 
to produce them, we had better stay out of the hog business." ^ 
The advantages of the " All Year Hog Pasture " are : 

1. It reduces the cost of pork production about half. 

2. It improves the fertility of the soil. 

3. It provides a well-balanced ration and keeps the hogs in 
the best of health condition. 

4. Because the soil has been cultivated and the hogs are 
shifted from pasture to pasture, the soil does not easily become 
contaminated. (See Exercise 4.) 

A third factor in economic pork production is properly bal- 
ancing the ration. The i:)icture (Fig. 87) shows that corn alone 

does not support the tissues of 
swine, because it does not pro- 
vide enough protein. When 
skim milk and wheat middlings 
were added, the necessary 
amount of protein was fed, the 
ration was balanced, and as a 
result the pigs did better. 

In the " corn belt," it is 
generally believed that pork 
cannot be produced without corn. This opinion is not sup- 
ported by the conditions under which the wild hogs lived in 
the forests of Europe, Asia, and Africa, when they ate herbs, 
roots, worms, snakes, insects, and grew fairly well. However, 
when a well-balanced ration is provided, pork is produced more 
cheaply. 

If corn or wheat products are fed, some linseed oil meal, 
tankage, skim milk, ground alfalfa hay, soybeans, or cowpeas 
will help to balance the ration. A few simple rations follow : 




Courtesy of Orange Judd Co. 

Fig. 87. — Protein is very important. The 
larger two were fed skim milk and wheat 
middlings with corn; the smaller two were 
given corn only. 



' Sam Jordan : All Year Hog Pasture. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 



205 



1. Corn 3 P'irts 

2. Skim milk , . . . 5 parts 

1. Corn 14 parts 

2. Tankage i part 

3. Shorts 2 parts 

1. Corn 6 parts 

2. Alfalfa I part 

1. Corn 

2. Pasture grasses 

3. Skim milk 

A fourth factor in economic pork 
production is improving the herd. 
The razorback is a thing of the past, v^, .^^ 

because he does not dress out a high 
per cent of pork ; nor does he fatten 
economically. The picture (Fig. 89) \ _,_^ 4^ 

illustrates the difference between a '' — =-^— 

razorback and a half-pure breed. 

The razorback is a scrub, and will \^^^\-J\ 

sell slowly for scrub prices; the half ^±x-^- v^ 

breed sells more readily, and for better /^ 

Types of Swine. — There are two 

types of swine; namely, the lard and ^U^'^ 

the bacon types. The bacon type is 

comparatively narrow over the back, LSOT/Trrtrnrv R=t< 

the quarters are somewhat smaller, LourttsyojuranscJuddCo. 

but the sides are deep and long. Fig. 88. — From milk to com. 

T-i ,1 1 , 1 1 1 As the animal grows, the ration 

From the bacon type we have break- ^^^^^^^ ^he cut shows a valuable 

fast bacon, which, in many places, is lesson regarding feeding the swine. 

The same lesson holds true for the 

the highest priced cut. The finest feeding of other live stock. 




2o6 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



bacon is intermingled with a great deal of lean. This is the kind 
of meat generally exported, because it satisfies foreign trade. 
The people of England are especially fond of breakfast bacon. 




jl^l^F, ^, 



Fig. 8g. — How breeding improves the stocli, 



t curtesy of Orange Judd Co. 
■ a half-pure breed and a razorback. 



Hogs of the lard type have broad backs, full quarters, and short 
legs. They have the greatest capacity to put on fat, and repre- 
sent, therefore, the best conformation for maximum pork produc- 
tion. The disposition of the lard types is slow, sluggish, and 
lymphatic. They put on fat readily and often become too fat, 
especially for show purposes. Judges at State Fairs, and else- 
where, should discount hogs that 
carry a surplus of fat. Hogs 
should be judged in accordance 
with their purpose. Breeding 
stock should be in good living 
condition, and hogs for the mar- 
ket should be reasonably fat. 
(See Exercise 5.) 
Breeds of Swine. — i. Berk- 
shire hogs came from Berkshire County, England, and are now 
widely distributed. In England, the Berkshires are not quite 
so broad-backed, but in the " corn belt " they soon become 




Fig. go. — The Berkshire. Lard type. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 207 

typical lard hogs. Berkshires have short, dished faces, their 
ears are short and stand erect, and their bodies are long and 
deep, but not quite so wide as those of some other breeds. 
Their backs are slightly arched. The color of the Berkshires 
is black, with five or six white points. Generally the head, 
feet, and tail are partially white. 

The Berkshires are excellent feeders and fatteners, are of fine 
quality, prolific, and are very adaptable to a wide range of 
climatic conditions. 




Fig. gi. — I'he Poland China. Lard type. 

2. The Poland China hogs originated in the Miami Valley 
of Ohio from 1816 to 1840. They are very compact, close to 
the ground, and typical of the lard type. They are black, with 
white feet, tail, and face. White elsewhere on the body does not 
show impurity of blood. The face is straight, and the ears break 
at the upper third. 

The chief adverse criticism on the breed is their lack of pro- 
lificacy. However, it has been found that the average of one 
thousand eighty-six Poland China litters was 7.45 pigs each.^ 

* Plumb : Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. 



208 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The strong points of the Poland China breed are their early 
maturing, and their feeding and fattening qualities. They are 
widely distributed and a very popular breed in America. 




Courtesy oj Vrangi: J i,dd Co. 
Fig. q2. — Poland China pigs. 

3. The Duroc Jersey pig originated in the state of New York. 
In 1872, the National Swine Breeders' Convention practically 

set the essential 
characteristics 
that this breed 
was to possess. 
Hogs of this 
breed are a solid 
red, ranging from 
a dark cherry red 
to a lighter red. 
They are in body conformation essentially the same as the 
Poland China breed. They rank well with the other lard hogs 




Fig. 93. — The Duroc Jersey. Lard type. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 



209 



in per cent of dressed carcass. A well-finished 100-pound pig 
will dress out 72 pounds or seventy-two per cent, and a 300- 
pound hog well finished will dress out about 237 pounds or 
seventy-nine per cent. , 




Fig. 94- — The Tamworth. Bacon type. 

Classification of Swine 

1. Lard Types : 

I. Berkshire 2. Poland China 3. Duroc Jersey 4. Chester White 

2. Bacon Types : 

I. Yorkshire 2. Tamworth 3. Hampshire 



Prevention of Hog Diseases. — Hogs that are healthy have 
a strong resistance to disease. They may be kept healthy by 
providing clean quarters and clean water, and by feeding a 
balanced ration. If every cell and tissue of the body is well fed, 
the hog keeps strong and vigorous, and disease finds no fertile 
field or weakened organs in which to develop. On the other 



2IO PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

hand, if hogs are not fed a well-balanced ration, some parts of the 
cells are not properly nourished. These cells become weakened, 
and disease germs soon overtake the weakened parts. Strong, 
healthy hogs are seldom sick. 

Hogs should be kept free from worms and lice, because they 
reduce the vitality of the hogs. When herds are infested with 
worms, it is well to use six grams of santonin and four grains of 
calomel per one hundred pounds of live weight. This may be 
fed in slop after hogs have had no feed for about twenty-four to 
thirty-six hours. Lice may be destroyed and kept away by 
dipping hogs every six or eight weeks in the summer season. A 
concrete vat filled with crude oil furnishes one of the cheapest 
and best dips. Spraying hogs with a good disinfectant will also 
do away with lice. 

Hogs will not need treatment often if they are provided clean, 
sanitary quarters. The saying " dirty as a hog," has no appli- 
cation in the hog kingdom. The hog does not like filthy and 
unclean quarters, and if man will do his part in maintaining 
clean quarters, the hog will be healthy, free from lice and worms. 
Under healthful conditions the maximum growth and thrift in 
hogs may be secured. (See Exercises 6 and 7.) 

Hog Cholera. — Hog cholera causes an annual loss of about 
$65,000,000 in the United States. This disease is caused, like 
many other diseases, by a small germ which remains unidentified 
up to the present time. These germs may be carried by man, 
mice, dogs, crows, pigeons, sparrows, and on wagons. Hogs 
that get sick should be isolated and put into a pen that is covered 
with netting, so neither mice nor sparrows can get in. All hogs 
that die of cholera should be burned, and the hog-quarters 
thoroughly disinfected. A good disinfectant is fresh air-slaked 
lime. It should be used freely on the floors of hog houses and 
over the ground of pens and feed-lots. After two or three days 



SWINE PRODUCTION 



211 



the lime may be scraped together and hauled out into the fields. 
Other disinfectants may be occasionally used to advantage. 

" An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," applies 
more forceably to hog cholera than to almost any other disease. 
However, when all measures of prevention have failed, then 
remedies must be used. Calling in a veterinarian, or the Farm 
Advisor, when the disease first appears is most economical. 
Vaccination, if needed, should be administered early. 

In all contagious diseases, whether of animals or of man, it is 
common courtesy to one's neighbors to put up a sign. When- 
ever hog cholera exists, the sign to be posted is " Hog Cholera 
Here." Putting up such a sign is a neighborly act. 

Summary. — Raising and selling hogs is so profitable that 
they are frequently called " mortgage Hfters." Early maturity 
of swine lessens the cost of producing pork. A well-balanced 
ration also reduces the cost of production ; the use of forage crops 
is almost indispensable in successful swine husbandry. Provid- 
ing clean quarters, keeping the hogs healthy and vigorous, and 
feeding carefully, are large factors in preventing disease. The 
economic production of swine deserves our careful study and 
attention. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Hog Survey of the District. — Have pupils take a survey of the 
district, finding the breeds and numbers of hogs and their value. Fill out 
an outline similar to the following one and keep in your permanent 
notebook. 

Hog Survey of the District 



Farmer's Name 



Value 



Breed 



Total Value 



212 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



2. Pork Yield from Forty Acres of Corn. — If five and one-half pounds of 
corn will produce one pound of pork, how many pounds of pork may be 
produced from 40 acres of corn yielding 27.5 bushels per acre? 

3. Figuring the Profits of Feeding Corn. — If the hogs in the above 
problem sell for 7^ cents per pound, and corn is worth i cent per pound, 
or 56 cents per bushel, how much will the farmer make from tilling such 
40 acres of corn? 

4. To Study the Amount Saved from Hogging Down Forty Acres of 
Corn. — If it costs 4 cents per bushel to have corn gathered or husked, 
how much can a farmer save by " hogging down " 40 acres of corn yielding 
the average produced in the United States, namely, 27.5 bushels per acre? 

5. Construction of Miniature Hog Houses. — Have pupils make minia- 
ture hog houses out of pasteboard, and have them discuss the essentials of a 
good hog house. 






Fig. 


95. — Points of the pig. 






I. Snout. 




10. Breast. 


iq. 


Rump. 


2. Eye. 




II. Breast line. 


20. 


Belly. 


3. Face. 




12. Back. 


21. 


Ham. 


4. Ear. 




13. Loin. 


22. 


Stifle. 


S- Jowl. 




14. Side. 


23- 


Hock. 


6. Neck. 




15. Tail. 






7. Shoulder. 




16. Fore flank. 






8. Fore leg. 




17. Hind flank. 






9. Hind leg. 




18. Hip. 







6. Score Hogs according to the Following Score Card. 



SWINE PRODUCTION 

Lard Hogs — ^ Score Card 



213 



Scale of Points 


Breed 












1 








1. General Appearance — 34 points 

Weight according to age 

Form, arched back, straight underline, 
smooth, compact, medium length, stand- 
ing squarely on legs 

Quality, hair smooth and fine, bone medium 
size, clean, strong, and refined .... 

Condition, indicating health and high 
capacity for dressed carcass .... 

2. Head and Neck. — 8 points 

Snout, medium length, not coarse . . . 

Face, short, broad 

Eyes, clear, not sunken, free from wrinkles 
Ears, carried according to breed, fine me- 
dium size 


4 
10 

ID 

10 

I 
I 
I 

I 

2 
2 

8 

4 

6 

10 
10 

2 

2 
2 
8 
2 
100 

















t 


■ — 




Jowl, full, firm, free from wrinkles . . . 
Neck, thick, short, smooth to shoulder 

3. Forequarters — 12 points 

Shoulders, broad, deep, smooth, compact at 

top 

Breast, wide, deep, breast bone advanced . 
Legs, straight, short, strong, pasterns strong 

4. Body — 32 points 

Chest, deep, wide, large girth, fore flank full 

Sides, deep, broad, full, thickly and evenly 

fleshed 




Back, broad, strongly arched, well fleshed 
Loin, wide, strong, and well fleshed . . 
Flank, straight, full, and low 

5. Hindquarters — 14 points 

Hips, wide apart, smooth 

Rump, long, level, wide, evenly fleshed 
Ham, deep, wide, full, well fleshed . . . 
Pasterns, strong, straight, upright . . . 
Total 














214 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

7. An Essay-writing Contest on Hogs. — Pupils may be given an 
" Essay-writing Contest " on one of several topics in connection with the 
study of swine. Such topics as these may be used, " Origin and Improve- 
ment of the Hog," " Feeding Hogs," " Money in Hogs," " Treatment of 
Diseases of Hogs," " How to Produce Cheaper Meat," " Time of Year to 
Raise Hogs in Order to Make the Most Money out of Them." 



CHAPTER XIV 



SHEEP 

It is generally believed that the Argali of Asia, and the Musi- 
mon of the islands of Crete and Cyprus, are the real parents of 
our domestic sheep. 
The Argalia is found 
on the plains and the 
mountain sides of Asia, 
and the Musimon is 
still found on the 
islands of Corsica and 
Sardinia in the Medi- 
terranean Sea. Both 
of these wild types 
have been crossed with 
our domestic breeds 
and the progeny easily 
becomes domesti- 
cated. 

The habits and in- 
stincts of the wild 
sheep are still found in 
our domestic breeds, (i) Wild sheep sought the highest places, 
partly because they were dry and partly to escape their enemies. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 
At least two sheep to judge. 

215 




Fig. g6. — ^The Musimon, one of the wild ancestors of 
our domestic sheep. Had little wool, and some mutton. 



2i6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Domestic sheep will also seek the highest places to fold for the 
night. (2) Sheep do not like to go into stables or cross streams, 
but they will follow a leader. Shepherds make use of this in- 
stinct to drive sheep across a stream and into a stable. After 
one has gone, the rest will follow. (3) When sheep are excited, 
they stamp the earth with a front foot, a signal to the herd of ap- 
proaching danger. (4) Sheep, and especially lambs, have a great 
play instinct. They jump stumps, low straw stacks, or play 
around open ditches. If a barrel is set up, and two boards leaned 
against the barrel, lambs will run up one board and down the 
other, seemingly in great amusement. (5) Sheep eat weeds in a 
very strange way. One weed is not eaten down by one sheep, but 
each sheep of the herd takes a nibble as it passes until the weed 
is eaten. Sheep can graze the turf closely because their upper 
lip is split, and because they have sharp incisors. Sheep are 
called " Plant Scavengers," because they eat about nine-tenths 
of all the weeds and shrubs found in pastures ; horses and cattle 
will touch less than half of them. Sheep also graze steep hill- 
sides where cattle and horses cannot go. (See Exercises i 
and 2.) 

Importance of Sheep. — According to recent reports,^ there 
were 52,447,000 sheep in the United States, worth, on an average, 
$4.40 per head. The income from these sheep is about one- 
third as much as the income from poultry. (See Exercise 3.) 

Sheep States. — Although sheep are found to some extent in 
every state of the United States, they are mainly raised in the 
rolling sections of the West. The following twelve states are the 
leaders, producing about 64 per cent of the entire sheep crop.^ 
Wyoming, Montana, and New Mexico produce almost 25 per 
cent of all the sheep produced in the United States. 

' 1910 census. 

* Data for 1916, taken from the United States Yearbook of Agriculture. 



SHEEP 



217 



0% 



3% 



6% 



9% 



WYOMING 

MONTANA 

NEW MEXICO 

IDAHO 

OHIO 

OREGON 

CALIFORNIA 

TEXAS 

UTAH 

ARIZONA 

NEVADA 

MISSOURI 

REST OF U.S 



4,338,000 
3,941,000 
3,440.000 
3,102,000 
3,067,000 
2,563,000 
2,450.000 
2,156,000 
2,089,000 
1,849,000 
1,532,000 
416,000 



8.6% 



18.0% 



5.2% 
5.9% 



I 4.3 VI 
4.2% 



3.7% 



3.1% 
18% 



36.2' 



6.8% 



6.1% 
3.0% 



Graph 8. The leading states in sheep production. 

Classification of Sheep. — Sheep are classified as wool sheep 
and mutton sheep. However, typical mutton-producing sheep 
will produce some wool, and vice versa. Sheep are divided into 
the following classes : 
Fine Wool Breeds : 

I. American Merino. 2. Delaine. 3. Rambouillet. 




Fig. 97. — A pair of American Merinos, — examples of the tine wool type. 



2l8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Medium Wool Breeds : 

1. Southdown. 

2. Hampshire Down. 

3. Shropshire Down. 



4. Oxford Down. 

5. Suffolk Down. 



6. Dorset Horn. 

7. Cheviot. 




Shropshire ewe. Shropshire ram. 

Fig. 98. — Examples of medium wool type. 

Long Wool Breeds : 

I. Lincoln. 2. Leicester. 3. Cotswold. 





wm 


-^^B 


Iff 


5 


|H| 


k^. 


'. '-A 




a 


L^ '^^1 


■1 




■- .'.^ 


J 


Ik 


^ssa 




-S^^^^M^ 


■ 



Fig. 99. — Lincoln ram. An example of a long wool type. 



SHEEP 
Some Facts about Sheep ^ 



219 





Native Home 


Color 

OF 

Points 


Length 

OF 

Wool 


Diame- 
ter OF 
Wool 


Weight 

OF 

Fleece 


Weight of 

Sheep 


Per 

Cent 
Dressed 
Carcass 








Inches 


Inches 


Pounds 


Pounds 




American- 
















Merinos 


America 


White 


2-2i 


1 194 


12-25 


ICO-150 


50-7 


Delaine . . 


United States 


White 


3-5 


1 
1194 


10-20 


100-150 


50.7 


Rambouillet . 


France 


White 


3-4 


TT¥T 


10-15 


150-185 


50. 7 


Southdown 


England 


Gray 


2-3 


81G5" 


4-8 


123-175 


55-3 


Cotswold . . 


England 


White 


8-14 


eoT 


10-14 


200-265 


54-2 



(See Exercise 4.) 

The fleece of the Merinos is short and very fine, but is very 
dense on the body. By density is meant the number of fibers 
that grow on a square inch. The wool of the long wooled types 
is not so dense, is thicker in diameter, and much longer. The 
wool from the fine wool breeds is made into the finest woolen 
fabrics ; the wool from the medium wool breeds is made into 
heavier woolen clothes ; and the wool from the long wool breeds is 
made into carpets, rugs, and other coarse woolen articles. 

Sheep, in the North Central States, are raised mainly for their 
meat. The fleece, weighing about 8 pounds, being worth about 
25 to 30 cents per pound (or about $2), pays for the keep of the 
sheep. The lamb sold for meat weighs usually from 75 to 100 
pounds, bringing about 7 or 8 cents per pound (worth $7.50). 
The latter is the main purpose of sheep production in many parts 
of the United States. 

Shelter for Sheep. — In dry regions sheep need little more 
than open sheds for protection, but in damp, cold regions they 
need closed sheds and barns, for when the fleece becomes thor- 

1 Harper: Animal Husbandry for Schools. 



220 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



oughly soaked, 5 or 6 days are necessary to dry it out. Under 
such conditions the sheep take pneumonia, colds, and other 
diseases, and need additional feed and care. The wool from 
fleece that has been soaked is never so good. Keeping sheep 
dry, therefore, increases the profits of the sheep-raiser. 

Lambs More Economical Fatteners. — Professor Shaw, at 
the Montana Station, in order to determine the relation of age 
to economical fattening, conducted an experiment with sheep 
of four ages, and about fifty sheep in each group. The following 
table gives the results of the experiment : 

Relation of Age to Feed Fed and Gains Made ^ 





Average Ration 
Pounds 


Average 
Weight 
at Be- 
ginning 


Average 
Daily 
Gain 


Average 
Total 
Gain 


Feed per ioo 

Pounds 
Gain in Pounds 




Barley 


.Clover 
Hay 


Barley 


Clover 
Hay 








Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 






Lambs . . . 


0.7 


2.1 


63 


0.27 


23-7 


253 


763 


Wethers 
















One yr. old . 


0.7 


3.8 


95 


0.27 


23-5 


256 


1413 


Wethers 
















Two yr. old . 


0.7 


4.1 


116 


0.28 


24-3 


248 


1469 


Aged ewes . . 


0.7 


-3 


92 


0.18 


15.6 


387 


1320 



It will be observed that the amount of grain fed was prac- 
tically the same per one hundred pounds gain in all cases, except 
in the case of aged ewes, but that only 763 pounds of clover 
hay was required for the lambs to make 100 pounds gain, as 
opposed to about 1400 pounds of hay for the other three lots, 
a difference of about 700 pounds of hay saved in feeding 

1 Mont. Bui. No. 35. 



or 



SHEEP 221 

Iambs. This at a half cent per pound would be worth $3.50, 
which is a very large saving in favor of the lambs per hundred- 
weight gain. 

Pure-bred Sires. — The use of pure-bred sires, of proper con- 
formation, quality, and disposition, often reduces the cost of 
mutton production. It is said that the sire is half of the herd. 
In the first generation he is half ; in the second, three-fourths ; in 
the third, seven-eighths, and so on, until the entire flock becomes 
a very high-grade group. The choice of a good pure-bred sire 
is very important. 

At the University of Missouri,^ a group of Western ewes were 
mated to a pure-bred mutton ram, and another group of similar 
Western ewes were mated to a scrub ram. There were 17 lambs 
in each lot.^ 

The lot of good lambs averaged 60 pounds when 3 months 
old, and sold for $7.35 per hundredweight; the scrub lambs 
averaged 56 pounds when 4 months old, and sold for $4.50 per 
hundredweight. 

Notice the width of neck, body, withers, hips, thickness of 
quarters, and size of the good lamb shown in Figure 100 on the 
following page. 

Lambing Time. — Lambing time, according to the author's 
teacher. Professor Kleinheintz, of the University of Wisconsin, 
is the " Harvest Time " of the shepherd. Then the shepherd 
must remain with his flock day and night. Ewes should be given 
separate pens, and weakly lambs should be helped in getting 
their first meal. Lambs should be kept warm until their bodies 
become dry ; sometimes they must be wrapped in a dry, stove- 
heated, woolen cloth. The true shepherd is quiet, gentle, 
kindly, and sympathetic. These qualities are essential to se- 
curing the best results with sheep. 

^ Cir. 6j. Advantages from the Use of Pure Bred Ram. 



222 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Docking Lambs. — All lambs should be docked when about 
ten or twelve days old, in cold weather if possible. The tail is 

cut off with a sharp 
knife at the third 
or fourth joint from 
the body, where the 
skin on the under 
side of the tail be- 
gins to be covered 
with wool. The skin 
should be slipped 
as far as possible 
toward the body of 
the lamb before cut- 
ting. The wound 
should be disinfected 
with a 5 per cent 
solution of carbolic 
acid, and then cov- 
ered with pine tar. 

Dipping Sheep. — 
Sheep may be profit- 
ably dipped twice a 
year, once just after 
they are sheared 
and again in the 
autumn. The coal- 
tar preparations are 
probably the best and cheapest dips. The directions for their 
use are generally printed on the cans. Ordinarily one part of 
dip to one hundred parts of water is used. Dipping overcomes 
sheep scab and sheep ticks. According to Farmers' Bulletin, 



H 


r 




r. 


^^^^^^1 






4 


HP 


w 


^y-g _, :■ .. 


^ 


^ 


. ', /- 


' ^H 


■ 


^^^^^H^vfV 


' 




1 


^^^^^^m^ • 


' /JHHI 


^^»> \ \ ^^H^H 


^^^K 


^^^^^^KjnS 






V 


^^m 




^^F^~i ' ~ ^^^Hji 


H 


^^^^^^^^^^^^u 


^"0 ^^^H 


^K < 1^ « JV ^P^^ 


^^Ift^fif^ 


■H^^^^^^Hj 


W*' ' ^^1 


■ ' -^ i^t'^^ 


^^^%i 


























1 


B in iBI 


^^''. i.1^^ JH^^Bk 


1 



Courtesy oj University of Missouri. 

Fig. ioo. — This good 6o-pound lamb sold for $7.35 per 
hundredweight when three months old. 



SHEEP 223 

No. 713, sheep scab is caused by a small parasitic mite. The 
female mite deposits 12 to 15 eggs which hatch in 3 or 4 days, 
mature in 7 or 8, and begin to lay eggs, the whole hfe cycle being 
complete in 12 days. When dipping sheep, care should be taken 
to have the dip warm, about 100° to 105° Fahr. After the sheep 
have all been dipped they should be kept in a warm, dry place 
not exposed to drafts. 

Feeding Sheep. — Sheep need feed for both flesh and wool. 
Corn, mixed with legume hay, is generally fed in the United 
States as far west as Colorado ; farther west wheat or barley is 
used instead of corn. Lambs weighing from 60 to 80 pounds 
may be given the following daily ration : 

Shelled corn 1.3 to 1.5 pounds 

Clover or alfalfa 1.4 to 2.0 pounds 

Corn stover, corn silage, corn, and oat straw may furnish the 
carbonaceous part of the feed. Clover hay, alfalfa, cowpeas, 
or soybean hay furnish the nitrogenous part of the feed. Sheep 
need feed for both flesh and wool. Wool is made up of a great 
deal of nitrogen, and therefore heavy wool producers should 
be fed a larger proportion of feeds rich in protein than are those 
that are to produce mutton only. 

Summary. — Sheep are principally produced in the Rocky 
Mountain regions. The production of mutton constitutes about 
two-thirds of the sheep industry. However, the production of 
wool is important to the American people. Care and proper 
management help to make sheep more profitable. Unless sheep 
are given shelter, proper feed, and are protected from their 
enemies, the best results will not be secured. Docking, dipping, 
and starting the lambs properly are necessary for success in sheep 
production. 



224 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Write an essay on " The Grazing Methods of Sheep." 

2. Write an argument of one hundred fifty to two hundred words, teUing 
why raising of sheep should be encouraged in your county. 

3. Make a survey of the number and kinds of sheep of your school 
district. 




Points of a sheep. 



1. Muzzle. 

2. Mouth. 

3. Nostril. 

4. Lips. 

5. Nose. 

6. Face. 

7. Forehead. 

8. Eye. 

9. Ear. 
10. Neck. 



11. Shoulder vein. 

12. Shoulder top. 

13. Shoulder. 

14. Arm. 

15. Brisket. 

16. Fore leg. 

17. Back. 

18. Loin. 

19. Hip. 

20. Ribs. 



21. Fore flank. 

22. Belly. 

23. Hind flank. 

24. Rump. 

25. Leg of mutton. 

27. Dock. 

28. Twist. 

29. Hind leg. 



SHEEP 



225 



To Score Sheep. 

Score Card 



Mutton Sheep 



Scale of Points 



Name of Breed 



Age, estimated — years, actual — years 

General Appearance — 26 points 

Weight, estimated — lb., actual — lb., score accord- 
ing to age 

Form, straight topline and underline, deep, broad, 
low, medium length, symmetrical, compact, stand- 
ing squarely on legs 

Quality, bone of firm texture, fine skin, silky hair, 
clearly defined features and joints, mellow touch, 
fleece soft, fine, pure 

Condition, thick, even, covering of firm flesh, espe- 
cially in regions of valuable cuts, indicating finish, 
light in offal 

Head and Neck — 8 points 

Muzzle, good size, lips thin, nostrils large and well 

apart, jaws wide 

Face, short, broad, profile straight 

Eyes, large, full, clear, bright 

Forehead, broad 

Ears, well carried, fine, medium size 

Neck, thick, short, throat clean 

Forequarters — 10 points 

Shoulder vein, smooth, full 

Shoulders, smoothly covered with firm flesh, compact 

Brisket, broad, full, breast wide 

Legs, straight, short, wide apart ; forearm full, shank 
fine ; feet sound 

Body — 25 points 

Chest, deep, broad, girth large, foreflank full . . . 

Back, broad, straight, medium length, thickly, 

evenly, and firmly fleshed 

Q 



226 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Score Card — Mutton Sheep {Continued) 



Scale of Points 



Name of Breed 



Ribs, deep, well sprung, closely set, thickly, evenly 
and firmly fleshed 

Loin, broad, straight, thickly, evenly, and firmly 
fleshed 

Flanks, full, low 

Hindquarters — 20 points 

Hips, smoothly covered, proportionate width . . 
Rump, long, level, width well carried back, thickly, 

evenly, and firmly fleshed 

Thighs, deep, wide, well fleshed 

Twist, deep, broad, well filled 

Legs, straight, short, strong ; shank, short but sound 

Fleece and Skin — 11 points 

Quality of wool, long, dense, even, well distributed 
over body 

Quality of wool, fine, soft, pure, even, crimp close and 
uniform 

Condition of wool, bright, strong, clean, yolk abun- 
dant 

Skin, pink color, clear 

Total 



3 
3 

2 

3 

100 



CHAPTER XV 



POULTRY 



Origin and History of Poultry. — It is generally believed 
that our domestic hen originated from the wild jungle fowls 
which still live in India, Ceylon, and the PhiUppine Islands. 
This wild fowl was a game, wary, 
shy bird, about the size of a 
pheasant, weighing from a pound 
to three and one-half pounds. 
The female jungle fowl usually 
laid two clutches of eggs a year, 
each containing from 2 to 15 
eggs. These eggs were small and 
probably weighed from 4 to 8 
ounces a dozen. 

The wild fowl was a scratching 
bird, living on seeds, insects, and 
vegetation. It could fly some 
distance, and, after the young were 
large enough to fly, roosted on limbs of shrubs and trees. It was 
a game fowl, and its flesh had a wild, undomesticated taste, and 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the dose of this chapter are : 

The Standard of Perfection, pure-bred fowls of the following breeds : 
Plymouth Rock, Wyandotte, Rhode Island Red, Orpington, and others. 
One sample of eggs (twelve eggs make a sample) ; scales that will weigh 
to ounces. 

227 




Fig. 102. — The Aseel fowl, one of the 
original ancestors of domestic fowls. 



228 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

did not possess the good eating qualities of the meat breeds 
of our fowls to-day. Some people prefer the wild flavor, and 
think that Leghorn chickens have a flavor Uke that of un- 
domesticated birds. 

Fowls were domesticated centuries ago by the Chinese. From 
China they were distributed through the rest of Asia, Europe, 
and America. 

Up to 1850 little was done to develop and improve poultry 
breeds. Very primitive methods were used in the poultry in- 
dustry. Methods of housing, feeding, breeding, and selection 
were neglected. Scarcely any one attempted to develop his 
poultry. Two practices greatly hindered its development: 
(i) The best fowls were slaughtered for table use, and (2) it was 
generally believed that a mixed flock produced the best results ; 
consequently, no definite varieties were developed. The idea 
that a mixed flock of fowls are more productive is still held by 
many, but is not in keeping with the principle, " that for definite 
purposes, definite varieties are developed." 

Since about the middle of the nineteenth century, definite 
breeds have been developed for specific purposes. Factors which 
have been influential in aiding the development of definite breeds 
were : 

1. The interest of poultrymen in better poultry. 

2. Exhibitions. 

3. Poultry books and newspapers. 

4. Incubators (improved from 1890 on). 

5. Instruction. 

6. The publication of The Standard of Perfection ^ (first copy 
published 1874). 

* The Standard of Perfection is published by the American Poultry Associa- 
tion, Mansfield, Ohio. (Cost about $2.00.) This book should be placed in every 
school of our land. 



POULTRY 



229 



Classes, Breeds, and Varieties of Poultry. — There are twelve 
classes of poultry. The term "class" refers to the country in 
which the fowls originated. The twelve classes are : American, 
Asiatic, Mediterranean, English, Polish, Hamburg, French, 
Continentals, Games and Game Bantams, Orientals, Oriental 
Bantams, and Miscellaneous. 

In each class there are usually several breeds ; for illustration, 
in the American Class there are the following breeds : ( i ) Plym- 




Courlcsy of University of Missouri. 

Fig. 103. — Rhode Island Red male and female. The Rhode Island Reds are 
characterized by a straight back and rectangular appearance. 



outh Rocks, (2) Wyandottes, (3) Javas, (4) Dominiques, 
(5) Rhode Island Reds, and (6) Buckeyes. Every breed has a 
different shape. Poultrymen frequently say, " shape makes 
the breed, and color the variety." To illustrate, all Rhode 
Island Reds are " bricklike " in shape ; and all Wyandottes 
are " ball-shaped." Rhode Island Reds have a long back and 
body ; Wyandottes have a short back and body. Study the illus- 




Fig. 104.— llniiM riymouth Rocks. Note the shape of these fowls. Plymouth 
Rocks are of six varieties, — Barred, White, Buff, Silver Pencila, Partridge, and 
Columbian. All varieties have the same weight, — cocks gj lb., hens 7j lb. 




Courtesy of University of Missouri. 
Fig. 105. — Wyandotte male and female. Note their shape. They are ball- 
shaped and have a Rose comb. All varieties of this breed have the same shape 
and weight, — cocks 82 lb., hens 6j lb. 

230 



POULTRY 



231 



trations of hens and cocks of each. Hens and cocks of each breed 
have standard weights. The size, shape, and weights of fowls 
are closely related. Some people overemphasize color of plu- 
mage, but it should be remembered that, while color of plumage 
is worth while, it is only a matter of secondary importance. If 
a fowl is to be most productive in egg or meat production, it 





Courtesy uj I'm (ruly oj Mi'.uiiri. 

Fig. 106. — Orpington male and female. While the Orpington has a back similar to 
the Plymouth Rock, its general appearance approaches that of the Wyandotte. 

must have the shape which is consistent with the purpose in 
mind. A very short back and body are not conducive to the 
highest egg or meat production. A fowl must have capacity 
of back and body in order to be a good egg or meat producer. 
Egg and meat production has been at the basis of the develop- 
ment of most of our breeds of poultry. 

As was stated above, " color makes variety." The Plymouth 
Rock Breed comprises six varieties, Barred, White^ Buff, Silver 



232 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Penciled, Partridge, and Columbian. The varieties have dif- 
ferent colored plumage. In practically all other respects they 
are similar. Their shapes are identical. The Standard of Pcr- 




FiG. 107. — Single-comb White Leghorns. Note white earlobe, and the snug way 
they hold their feathers. 

fection gives detailed descriptions of the shapes and colors of all 
varieties of fowls. (See Exercises i, 2, 3, and 4.) 

Purposes of Poultry. — Egg and Meat Production. Three types 
of fowls have been developed : (i) the egg type, (2) the meat 
type, and (3) the general purpose type. The Mediterranean 
Class, of which the Leghorns are a breed, conform most closely 
to the egg type. The Asiatic Class is generally considered a 
meat-producing type. The American Class and the Orping- 
tons of the English Class are of the general purpose type. 

Since swine and beef cattle furnish, to a great extent, the 
meat supply for the American people, chickens are not raised 
extensively for their meat ; although large quantities of poultry 
are sold annually for meat. The egg production in the United 
States, on the average, is nearly 60 eggs per hen per year. It is 
believed the average production could be raised to 120 eggs per 
hen. Since a dozen eggs, if of fair size, weigh from 24 to 26 



POULTRY 



233 




60 eggs. What the average farm hen 
produces. 



120 eggs. What she should produce. 



Fig. 108. 



ounces, and the weight of the average hen is about five pounds, it 
will be seen that a hen would produce about three times her own 
weight in eggs a year. 

Egg Production * 



Variety or Name 



Plymouth Rock 
Wyandotte . . 
Rhode Island Red 
Leghorn . . . 



NtJMBER 

OF Eggs 



i6s 
175 
167 

165 



Weight of 
Eggs in 
Ounces 



351-45 

355-25 
374.08 

348.15 



Weight of 
Hen 



Pounds 
6.25 

5-75 
5-98 
3.60 



Weight of 

Feeds 

Eaten per 

Year 



Pounds 
91.8 
74-5 
91-5 
71-3 



It will be observed from the above table that the Leghorns 
produced a greater weight of eggs in proportion to the food con- 
1 Taken from Bulletin No. 10, Missouri State Poultry Experiment Station. 



234 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



sumed than any other breed. However, the conclusion should 
not be made from the above table that the Leghorns are the best 
breed. About one-third of the money derived from the sales 
of poultry products comes from the sale of poultry for meat; 
and about two-thirds of the income comes from the sale of eggs. 
The Characteristics of a Good Fowl. — A good fowl should 
conform very closely to the standard weight and shape of the 




Courtesy of Mountain Grove Poultry Exp. Station, 

Fig. ioq. — Two chicks of the same age, raised in the same brooder and given the same feed. 
One is bred from vigorous, healthy stock and the other from stock lacking in vitaUty. 

breed to which it belongs, and have the color of its variety. This 
shows good breeding or improvement and indicates that its 
ancestors were pure-bred fowls for at least six generations. A 
fowl should also show a good constitution. A strong beak, a 



POULTRY 23s 

broad head, a well-formed body, and strong legs indicate a good 
constitution. A fowl with a thin, peaky, snaky head should be 
killed for meat. The posture and carriage of a fowl is worthy 
of consideration. Erectness, pride, alertness, and activity are 
characteristics of a good fowl. An active fowl is better. " Late 
to roost and early to rise, makes a fowl healthy, wealthy, and 
productive." A fowl that is lazTy, droopy, and does not hold its 
feathers and body up snugly is not good. A fowl that works 
from early morning to late evening is the egg producer. Fowls 
that remain on the roost late in the morning, go to bed early at 
night, and sit on the roost a part of the day are drones and un- 
worthy of their keep. The hens that go farthest from the 
house are usually the best layers. 

Other points which indicate good qualities in fowls are : 

1. Early hatched and early maturing pullets. 

2. Early laying pullets. 

3. Winter laying hens. 

4. Fowls that do not go broody. 

5. Late moulting fowls. 

6. Fowls with short, worn-down toenails. Long toenails 
indicate inactivity. 

Housing of Poultry. — The Essentials of a Poultry House. The 
essentials of housing poultry are : 

1. The house must furnish sufhcient room. 

2. It should be dry. 

3. It should be well ventilated, but free from drafts. 

4. Every part of the house should receive sunshine during 
the day. 

5. It should be sanitary and easily cleaned. 

6. It should be convenient. 

7. It should be economic in cost. 

8. It should be enemy proof. 



236 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



I. Authorities agree that each fowl should have from 3 to 5 
square feet of floor space. A house that has 400 square feet of 
floor space will house satisfactorily about 100 fowls. However, 
the floor space will vary somewhat with the kinds of fowls ; the 
heavy Asiatics will require more room than the small Leghorns. 




Courtesy oj Missouri Poultry Experiment Station 

Fig. no. — A cross section of a convenient poultry house. M is a roost pole, O is the 
droppings platform, Q is the nest underneath, L is the back ventilator, U is the bin for 
the grain, 5 and T are the front ventilators. 

A poultry house that is to serve as a roosting place alone need 
not be as large per fowl as one that is to serve as a roosting, living, 
and laying house. 

2. The poultry house should be built in a dry place and kept 
dry. A wet, moist house will be a cold house. 

3. The house should be free from drafts, but should be well 
ventilated. Pure air is as essential to poultry as it is to us, but 
drafts cause sickness and reduce the strength of the fowls. 
Means for ventilation should also be provided for when the 
house is built. 



POULTRY 237 

4. The sunlight should, if possible, strike every part of the 
house daily. The sun's rays keep the house dry and comfortable, 
destroy germs and lice, and give tone to the fowls. The kind of 
windows and methods of admitting sunshine are discussed under 
the topic, " Poultry House Construction." 

5. A sanitary house, free from germs, odors, and lice, is essen- 
tial. All interior fixtures should be movable. The walls should 
be free from crevices and openings. No hiding places for vermin 
should be allowed. The manure should be removed frequently. 

6. Convenient arrangement of the interior of a poultry house 
reduces the cost of production. Roosts, nests, feeding hoppers, 
drinking pans, bins for holding feeds, should be conveniently 
located for the attendant. These are discussed in the chapter 
on " Poultry House Construction." 

7. Poultry houses should be economically constructed. A 
house suitable for 100 hens should not cost much more than 
$50.00 or $60.00. The lumber of old buildings may be used to 
reduce the cost. Square houses cost less than long houses. A 
simple house costs less and is better. (See Exercise 5.) 

8. Rats, mice, and other animals should be kept out of the 
poultry house. There is much loss due to rats destroying young 
chickens. Minks and polecats also lay a heavy tax on poultry 
production. 

Poultry House Construction. — TJie Foundation. There are 
two kinds of foundations for the sills to rest upon : 

I. Wooden posts of hedge, oak, or cedar may be used for the 
foundation. These posts are set 2 or 3 feet in the ground, and 
3 or 4 feet apart. A trench should be dug all the way around 
these posts, and a fine wire netting, extending 2 to 3 feet in the 
ground, should be tacked to the posts. This netting will keep 
out vermin. Brick or rock pillars may be used instead of 
wooden posts. 



238 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

2. Cement foundations are put into the soil deep enough to 
prevent heaving by frost, and should extend 12 inches above 
the surface of the ground. Cement foundations give greater 
protection from cold and destructive animals. They are more 
expensive, but last longer. 

Floors. There are three kinds of floors for poultry houses. 
Each has its advantages and disadvantages, according to con- 
ditions : 

1. The earth floor is probably the best in places where the 
soil is sandy and dry, but should not be used in places where the 
soil is wet. An earth floor is hard to clean ; a part of it is taken 
away at every cleaning, so that it soon becomes lower than the 
ground outside and the soil water drains into the house. 

2. Board floors harbor insects, rats, and mice, are cold, do not 
last long, and therefore are not to be recommended. 

3. Cement floors, if properly made, are the best. In making 
a cement floor the following points should be observed : First, 
from 8 to 12 inches of coarse gravel, rocks, or cinders should be 
packed down to break the capillary movement of soil water, 
and to keep the house dry. The cement floor should be 8 to 
12 inches above the surface of the soil. This will keep the 
house dry, especially if the soil outside is properly graded. 
The cement floor is durable and rat-proof, and can be easily 
cleaned. 

Walls. Walls are made of boards, brick, or cement. In most 
cases boards put on vertically are most satisfactory. Disinfec- 
tion is difficult where boards are put on horizontally. The 
inside walls should be smooth. This aids in keeping the house 
sanitary. 

The Height of the House. The height of the poultry house 
depends upon the type of roof used. Ordinarily in a house with 
a semi-monitor roof the back should be about 5 feet high and 



POULTRY 



239 



the front about 7. In a house 16 feet wide, with a shed roof, 
the back should be about 5 feet and the front should be about 
y-g- or 8 feet high. 

Ventilation. Figure no illustrates how a house can be well 
ventilated without drafts. Notice the open shutters in front 
and the open end at the rear. 

Windows. There should be about i.o foot of window space 
to every 15 square feet of floor space. A house that has 400 



Windows set horizontally permit the sunlight to shine 
only over a small portion of the house. 



Fig. 



Windows set vertically permit the sun's rays to shine over more of the 
floor space. 



square feet of floor space should have about 27 square feet of 
glass space to the south and have 3 or 4 small windows at the 
back. Tall windows are better than wide windows, for they 
admit the sunlight over a greater area. 

The windows on the south side should be placed fairly high 
so that sunlight may strike the remotest corners. See cuts of 
houses on page 240. 



240 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 112. — This is a shed roof. 




Fig. 113. — ^This is a gable roof. 



Types of Roofs. There are five types of roofs. From the 
figures it can be determined when each may be used to advantage. 
The pitch of roofs should range from a fourth to a third slope. 

1. Shed Roof 
Advantages 

Turns all the water to the back 
Admits sunshine to all parts 
Is the cheapest roof 
Disadvantages 

Cannot be used to advantage 

in a house more than 16 

feet deep 

2. Gable Roof 
Advantages 

Can be used in a wider house 
Disadvantages 

Requires two sets of rafters 
Does not admit a maximum 
amount of sunUght 



Monitor Roof 
Advantages 

When properly made may give 
good ventilation and sunshine 
May be used in a very wide house 
Disadvantages 

Requires four sets of rafters 
Is more expensive 
Semi-monitor Roof 
Advantages 

Admits light into all parts of 

the house 
May be well ventilated 



Fig. 114. — This is a monitor 
type of roof. 




FiG. 115. — Semi-monitor roof. 




POULTRY 241 

5. Combination Roof 
Advantages 

Used in the open-front houses 
Admits sunlight 
Disadvantages 

Is not as good as the semi- f^^ na.- Combination roof. 

monitor 
(See Exercises 5 and 6.) 

Interior Fixtures in Poultry Houses. — The essential points 
to consider in putting in interior fixtures are : 

1. Cheapness of construction. 

2. Convenience to care-taker. 

3. Saving of space. 

4. Movability. 

5. Arrangement so that they may be easily disinfected. 

6. Adaptability to the breed of fowls raised. 

One or more of these points will be discussed briefly with 
each interior fixture mentioned. 

Roosts. If the fowls are to stay in the poultry house over- 
night, roosts must be provided. Wild chickens roosted on the 
branches of trees. Round branches are not best suited for fowls 
to roost upon. An undue pressure is borne on the breastbone 
of the fowl when roosting on a rounded or edged surface. It is 
for this reason that crooked breastbones are found in chickens. 
Roosts are made most economically by using 2X3 inch or 2 X 4 
inch lumber and slightly rounding the edges. They should be 
fitted on the sides so that they may be easily removed. A 
smooth roost aids in keeping out insects and in disinfection. 
All the roosts should be on one level, for when they are placed 
slantwise one above the other, like the steps on a leaning ladder, 
the fowls are constantly pushing each other off in order to get 
on the upper perch, and are often injured. 



242 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The amount of roost space needed depends on the size of the 
fowls. Small breeds will need about 7 inches of perch room ; 
medium breeds 9 inches; and large breeds from 10 to 12 inches. 
The rear perch should be about 12 inches from the wall, and the 
roost poles 14 inches apart. The height of the roosts also de- 
pends upon the kind of fowls. Light breeds can fly from a height 
of 4 or 5 feet without injury, but the perches for large breeds 
should not be more than 2 or 3 feet from the floor. If a droppings 
board is used, it should be at least 30 inches from the floor, so 
that the floor space underneath may be used. Roosts may be 
fastened to the walls with hinges so that during the day they can 
be fastened to the roof. This will keep the fowls from roosting 
during the day in winter time. 

Scratching Shed. If during the winter the fowls are to stay 
in the poultry house in the daytime, a scratching shed will aid 
in egg production, and keep the fowls in good condition. This 
shed should have an open front and be 15 X 15 feet. Twelve 
or fifteen inches of straw, with a little grain scattered through 
it in this shed, will keep the fowls active, warm, and busy during 
the cold winter days. 

Nests. Fowls Hke a dark secluded nest for laying, so nests 
should be placed in the back part of the house. The nests should 
be movable and should be taken out, aired, and sunned occa- 
sionally. The size of the nests depends on the breed, from 
ioXi2toi2Xi4 inches. Trap nests are used when accurate 
records are wanted. These are made with a door that closes 
automatically when the hen enters the nest. Where an egg- 
producing strain is being developed, trap nesting is essential, for 
accurate records of each hen can then be kept. It is advisable 
that a slanting board be placed on top of trap nests to prevent 
fowls from roosting on them. 

Feeding Hoppers. Factories have designed many kinds of 



POULTRY 243 

feeding hoppers, but any farmer can construct them much more 
cheaply. The capacities of hoppers vary from a few pounds to 
two or three hundred pounds. They are sometimes made with 
several compartments. 




Coiirli'^v of Mountain Grove Poultry Exp. Station. 

Fig. 117. — A dry-mash hopper, four and one half feet long, which holds over 150 pounds 
of dry mash. The opening through which the fowls eat should be four inches in the clear. 
Wires are placed across this opening three inches apart to prevent the birds from getting 
in and also prevent them from flipping the mash out. This shows the top door open ready 
for filling. 

The main advantages of hoppers are : 

1. They save labor. 

2. Where several feeds are provided in the hopper, the fowls 
may balance the feeds according to individual nee^ds. 

3. Where fowls are fed in a flock, shy fowls seldom get enough 
feed. The feeding hopper suppUes their needs. Hoppers should 



244 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



be economically made, be hung in a well-lighted place, and their 
capacity range from two to three hundred pounds per hundred 
fowls. The kinds of feeds used in hoppers will be discussed under 
feeds and feeding. 

Drinking Pans. Drinking pans or buckets should be placed 
upon platforms about i| or 2 feet high. The main considera- 
tion is to prevent dust, dirt, and filth from falling into the water. 

Fresh, pure water is essential 
to egg production, for about 
74 per cent of the egg is water. 
The water should be pure and 
fresh, warm in winter and 
moderately cool in summer. 

Dust Wallows. Dust wal- 
lows should be about 10 inches 
deep, large, and preferably 
placed outside of the hen- 
house in a sunny spot. Dust 
baths are necessary to kill the 
lice and mites. Many lice are 
lost in the dust wallow, and 
others inhale so much dust 
into their breathing openings (spiracles) that they die because 
of lack of air. Equal parts of fine road dust, sand, and ashes 
make an excellent dust wallow. (See Exercise 7.) 

Eggs. — Importance of Egg Production. The average annual 
farm income from eggs, according to the United States Census 
Report,^ is $60.57, and from chickens sold, $31.82. Two- 
thirds of the average farm income from poultry is from the sale 
of eggs. Egg production constitutes the principal part of the 
poultry industry ; meat production is a by-product. If the 

' 1910. 




Courtesy of International Harvester L\ 



Fig. 118. — One way to keep the water 
clean. Fresh, clean, moderately warm water 
is as essential to egg production as food. 



POULTRY 



245 



estimates are correct that the annual income from poultry is 
about $750,000,000 in the United States, then the total egg 
values are approximately 
$500,000,000. This is about 
equal in value to the total 
wheat products. Eggs in 
many homes pay for groceries 
and clothes. Many farmers 
consider poultry products a 
side line, but, in large num- 
bers of cases, the sale of eggs 
is the mainstay for general 
running expenses. 

Parts of an Egg. An egg 
is composed of the shell, 
two membranes beneath the 
shell, an air sac between 
the membranes, three layers 
of the white, the germ, and 
the yolk. Examine an egg 
shell to find the two mem- 
branes. An egg contains water 66.7 per cent; protein 12.2 
per cent; ash 12 per cent; fat 8.9 per cent. 

Composition of Milk and Edible Part of Eggs 




Fig. 119. — The composition of the edible 
portion of an egg. 





Water 


Fat 


Sugar 


Protein 


Ash 


IMilk 

Eggs 


87% 
74-o% 


3.69% 

10.0% 


4.98% 
0.00% 


3.5% 
15-0% , 


0.7% 

I-0% 



The Building of an Egg. An egg is built in parts. Just as a 
knife is made a piece at a time, — the blade by one man probably, 
the part that holds the blade by another, and the handle by still 



246 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



another, — so also is the egg made a piece at a time. There are 
three essential parts of an egg — the yolk, the white, and the 
shell. Each part is made in a separate part of the egg-laying 

organ. The yolk is developed 
in the ovary ; the white (al- 
bumen) is laid on the yolk in 
the first two- thirds of the ovi- 
duct ; and the shell is built 
over the white of the egg in 
the lower third of the oviduct. 
Each of the three parts of an 
egg is developed by a special- 
ized organ. 

The time required to build 
each part of the egg varies 
somewhat. But it may be 
generally stated as follows : 
All the yolks of the eggs that 
a fowl is ever to lay, are de- 
veloped in the growing fowl 
before it is 5 or 6 months 
old. These yolks are very 
small, ranging in size from 
that of a pinpoint up to the 
normal size as found in eggs. 
It was found by an expert examination that these yolks in 
the grape- like ovary vary in number from 1500 to 3600. It 
is claimed upon good authority that more yolks are present in 
the fowl than can ever be laid. When the yolks mature, they 
pass into the oviduct where the white is laid over the yolk in 
three layers. The time required to do this is from 6 to 8 hours. 
The shell is made in from 12 to 24 hours. 




Courtesy of Mountain Grove Exp. Station. 

Fig. 120. — Photograph of the egg organs 
to show the sections where different parts of 
the egg are made. 



POULTRY 



247 



Feeding for Egg Production. The egg is a finished product 
made up of parts. Before a knife can be produced, all the parts 
must be provided ; so, also, in the making of an egg, every part 
must be provided before there can be an egg. No marketable 
egg is produced without a yolk, a white, and a shell. Therefore, 
in feeding for egg production, feed should be provided in such 
proportions that an equal number of yolks, whites, and shells 




Fig. 121. — • Sour milk for chicken feeding. 



Courtesy Univ. of Missouri. 



may be built. To supply feed in such a proportion to a hen as 
to build 50 yolks, 50 whites, and no shells, would mean no egg 
production ; because no one has ever heard of a case in which 
50 eggs having no shells were laid. After the feed for the pro- 
duction of 50 yolks and 50 whites has been supplied, feed that 
would have built 50 shells would have rounded out man's aid 
in giving the hen a chance to develop 50 eggs. To be success-, 
ful in aiding the hen to develop eggs rapidly, one must reahze 
that not all kinds of poultry food are well suited to egg produc- 
tion. Professor C. T. Patterson of the Mountain Grove Experi- 
ment Station has worked out the following way of balancing a 
feed for the maximum egg production. It is a suggestion worthy 
of our consideration. 



248 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

An Unbalanced and a Balanced Ration 



Feed 


Yolks 


Whites 


Feed 


Yolks 


Whites 


loo lb. corn 


255 


134 


100 lb. corn 


255 


134 


loo lb. wheat 


243 


182 


100 lb. wheat . . 


243 


182 


20 lb. oats 


39 


31 


20 lb. oats . . 


39 


31 


20 lb. bran 


31 


41 


20 lb. bran 


31 


41 


20 lb. shorts 


41 


44 


20 lb. shorts . 


41 


44 


20 lb. cornmeal .... 


50 


29 


20 lb. cornmeal . 


50 


29 








20 lb. meatscraps 


20 


221 


Totals 


659 


461 




679 


682 



" The above table assumes that one pound of carbohydrates 
will make 3^ yolks and one pound of protein will make i6f 
yolks. This is above maintaining the body where hens are fed 
all they want." 

Grit, oyster-shells, or ground limestone should be provided for 
the hens, from which they provide material for the egg shells. 
To each one hundred pounds of the above feed about one and 
one-half pounds of fine table salt and two pounds of fine char- 
coal should be added. 

Under general farm conditions only two or three feeds will be 
used. In order to balance a corn ration, common poultry feed, 
it will prove economic to add one part of meatscraps to ten parts 
of corn. This will not quite balance the ration, for we will have 
the following : 



Corn, 100 lb. 
Meatscraps, 10 lb. 
Total . . . 




Whites 

134 
1 10 

244 



POULTRY 249 

Therefore slightly more than one-tenth meatscraps should 
be fed. If skimmed milk is fed, the following may be used as a 
basis to figure its value : One hundred pounds of skimmed 
milk will make 22 yolks and 52 whites ; and the same amount of 
buttermilk will make 22 yolks and 65 whites. Figure 121, taken 
from Bulletin No. 79, Agricultural Experiment Station, Uni- 
versity of Missouri, illustrates what feed means in economic 
egg production. 

Market Grades of Eggs. Eggs sold to the country stores should 
be fresh, clean, infertile^ uniform in color, shape, and size, and 
should weigh from 24 to 28 ounces per dozen. All white eggs 
should be white. All brown eggs should have a uniform shade 
of brown. Unusually large eggs are undesirable, for they do not 
fit well into the fillers of egg cases, and are often broken. Eggs 
weighing 24 ounces are worth about 15 per cent less than eggs 
weighing 28 ounces. Why produce infertile eggs? Because 
hens will produce as many, if not more, infertile than fertile eggs, 
and infertile eggs are not affected by hot weather. Every egg 
should be covered with a shell of sufiicient strength so that it 
will carry without breaking. (See Exercise 8.) 

Preventable Losses in Market Eggs. Circular No. 140 of the 
Bureau of Animal Husbandry states that the estimated average 
annual loss of eggs in the United States is about 17 per cent, or 
$45,000,000. The distribution of causes for these losses is as 
follows : 

Per Cent 

From dirties 2.0 

From breakage 2.0 

From chick-developed eggs 5.0 

From held and shrunken eggs 5.0 

From rotten eggs 2.5 

From moldy and off-flavored eggs 0.5 

Total 17.0 



2 so PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

These losses can largely be prevented. Clean nests and daily 
gathering will prevent dirty eggs. Breakage can be reduced 
by shipping only eggs with a good shell and of a normal shape 
and size. Chick development can occur only in fertile eggs. 
Separating hens and cocks during the season that eggs are pro- 
duced for the market will secure the production of infertile eggs, 
the only guarantee against chick development. All mature male 
birds should be killed, sold, or confined as soon as the hatching 
season is over. " Swat the rooster " after the breeding season 
will prevent the loss of many eggs. T. E. Quisenberry, of the 
Mountain Grove, Missouri, Poultry Experiment Station, states 
" that the rooster spoils one-half million dollars' worth of eggs 
a month from June to October each year in Missouri alone." 
Harry R. Lewis, Poultry Husbandman of the New Jersey Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station, says in Productive Poultry Hus- 
bandry : "There is probably nothing the poultryman can do 
which would improve the quality of eggs for table use as the 
production of infertile eggs." To prevent the loss due to 
heat and evaporation, eggs should be stored in a cool place. 
The losses due to decay may be partly prevented by market- 
ing eggs twice every week, especially during the summer 
months. 

Preservation of Eggs. Since eggs are produced in greatest 
numbers in March, April, and May, it is often desirable to pre- 
serve some of the surplus supply for use the following winter. 
One of the cheapest and most convenient egg preservatives for 
farm use is made by adding one part of water glass (sodium 
silicate) to nine parts of rain water, well boiled and cooled. 
This solution is put into ordinary stone jars holding from 12 to 
15 dozen eggs. The top of the eggs should be covered by at 
least two inches of the preservative. It is advisable to cover the 
jar with oilcloth, or something similar, to prevent evaporation. 



POULTRY 251 

The jars should be kept in a place where the temperature is 
about 60° Fahr. or cooler. Eggs may be kept in excellent 
condition by this method. The shrinkage of the eggs over 
a period of 9 months is often as little as one per cent. Pre- 
serving eggs is analogous to curing meats, canning fruits, and 
ensiling corn. 

There are many other methods of preserving eggs, among 
which may be mentioned preservation in hmewater and varnish- 
ing with vaseline. Eggs preserved in Hmewater are good, but 
they have often a disagreeable odor and taste ; and to varnish 
eggs with vaseline takes too much time. If the eggs are fresh 
and the directions for the use of water glass are followed, the 
results will be satisfactory. 

How to Select Hens that Will Lay. — Housing and feeding^ 
and exercise, are all essential for egg production, but with the 
best of care and management these will not make all hens lay. 
Before eggs can be produced, there must be a hen of proper con- 
formation. It has been found by the trap-nest system that some 
hens will never lay an egg. We have known for some time that 
some horses are race horses and others are draft horses. We 
also know that the most economic milk-producing cows have a 
dairy conformation, but it has only been recently known that a 
laying hen differs as much from a non-layer as a dairy cow differs 
from a beef-producing cow. Walter Hogan,^ author of the Hogan 
Test, has discovered the characteristics that indicate egg pro- 
duction. To him we are indebted for the following established 
facts regarding egg-producing capacity (after all other factors 
have been provided) : 

I . The measurement of the Jowl from the rear of the breastbone 

1 The Call of the Hen, by Walter Hogan, published by The American 
School of Poultry Husbandry, Mountain Grove, Mo., will be found helpful in 
poultry study. 



252 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



to the pelvic bone is very significant. If the distance is only 
one finger's width, the fowl will lay very few eggs ; but if it is 
5 or 6 fingers' width, the capacity of the fowl for egg production 
is greater. 

The yearly egg yield of fowls with one-finger capacity, and 
varying thicknesses of the pelvic bones, are shown in the follow- 
ing table : 

One-Finger Capacity (Abdomen) 



Thickness of Pelvic Bone 


One-Finger Capacity 


^ inch 


36 
32 
28 


■1- inch 


T~5- inch 


J inch 


24 

20 


A- inch 


# inch 


16 


-^ inch 


12 


•^ inch 


8 


-^ inch 


4 



4 inch 







2. The egg-producing capacity depends on the thickness of 
the pelvic bone, which includes the skin, muscles, and gristles. 
A thin pelvic bone indicates high capacity for egg production ; 
but a heavy, thick pelvic bone indicates a low capacity, as is 
indicated by the above table. For illustration, a hen having one- 
finger capacity and a pelvic bone ts inch thick would be capable 
of producing 36 eggs the first laying year, provided all other 
factors for egg production were correct. But if she had a one- 
finger capacity and her pelvic bone was f inch thick, she would 
be incapable of producing any eggs. 

The table on page 253 combines the main points of the Hogan 
Test. Every boy and girl of our land should study it and be 
able to apply it. 



POULTRY 



253 



The Relation of Thickness of Pelvic Bone and Capacity to Egg 
Production when Condition is Good 



Thickness ot 
Pelvic Bgne 


One -Finger 
Capacity 


Two-Finger 
Capacity 


Three-Finger 
Capacity 


Four-Finger 
Capacity 


Five-Finger 
Capacity 


Six-Finger 
Capacity 














With Nervous 
Temperament 


1 

T6 


36 


96 


180 


220 


250 


380 


1 

8 


32 


87 


166 


205 


235 


265 


3 
16 


28 


78 


■ 152 


190 


220 


250 


1 
4 


24 


69 


138 


17s 


205 


235 


5 
16 


20 


60 


124 


160 


190 


220 


A 


16 


57 


IIO 


145 


175 


205 

Slow 
Temperament 


7 

16 


12 


42 


96 


130 


160 


190 


1 
2 


8 


33 


82 


115 


145 


175 


9 
16 


4 


24 


68 


100 


130 


160 


f 





IS 


54 


85 


115 


145 

Bilious 
Temperament 


1 1 
T6 




6 


40 


70 


100 


130 


3 
4 







26 


55 


85 


115 


X3. 
16 






12 


40 


70 


100 


7 
¥ 









25 


55 


85 


15 
T6 

I 








10 



40 

25 


70 

Lymphatic 
Temperament 

55 


ItV 










10 


40 


4 













25 














10 




The capacity of any hen for egg production can be determined 
almost accurately from this table. To illustrate, a hen having 
a pelvic bone xV inch thick, and having a 5-finger capacity, will 
yield 250 eggs per year, when properly cared for. Temperament 
will affect the egg yield to some extent. 



254 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



3. The width between the pelvic bones is also indicative of 
egg production. If there is very little space between the pelvic 
bones, the chances for egg production are few ; but if the pelvic 
bones are wide apart, greater productivity is indicated. 

4. The condition of the fowl raises or lowers chances for egg 
production. Condition is indicated by the covering of the keel 
of the breastbone. If the breastbone is well covered with flesh, 
the fowl is in good condition, which indicates, if all other factors 
are the same, high egg production. But if the breastbone 

is poorly covered, a 
lower yield of eggs 
may be expected than 
is indicated by the 
above numbers. 

5. Abroad, medium 
long, or long back is 
essential to large egg 
production. Fowls 
with narrow, short 
backs have not enough 
room for the digestive 
organs, heart, and 
lungs, and liver. 
Fowls with baggy 
bodies are not the 
best egg producers. 
The fat hen has a 
large deposit of fat in the abdomen, causing the abdomen to 
become baggy. In an active laying hen, the body is well 
held up, almost free from fat, and is on a level with the 
keel of the breastbone. C. T. Patterson says: "There is an 
old expression, ' Hens get too fat to lay,' which is incorrect. 




Fig. 122. — A hen of this type seldom is a good layer. She 
is inactive and has become so fat because she can't lay. 



POULTRY 



255 



It should be said, ' The hen can't lay is the reason she gets 
too fat.' " 

Capacity, thickness of pelvic bone, width between pelvic bones, 
condition of the fowl, and a broad, medium long back are essential 
characteristics of a good layer. The bright red color of the comb 
does not last long, and indicates that the fowl is either laying or 
will soon lay, but does not prove that a fowl is a good layer the 
entire year. The fact 
is that heavy laying 
soon takes the bright 
color out of the comb. 
(See Exercises 9 and 
10.) 

Since the male bird 
is at least half of the 
flock in the transmis- 
sion of characters, it is 
equally important that 
he be selected with the 
greatest of care. The 
Hogan Test is as ap- 
plicable to the males 
as to the females, with 
this difference, however, that males have a smaller capacity 
than females, and their pelvic bones are more closely set. The 
application of the Hogan Test will soon enable the average 
person to detect differences in conformation, and to dis- 
criminate against the male bird that will not transmit egg-pro- 
ducing ability. 

Poultry Diseases. — Prevention of poultry diseases is more 
important than curing them. There are two factors essential 
in preventing poultry diseases. These are breeding and raising 




Courtesy of J. B. LippincoU Co. 
Fig. 123. — The work of the scaly leg mites. 



256 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



chickens that have good vigorous constitutions ; and sanitary 
measures. Fowls that lack constitution succumb to diseases 
much easier than do strong, vigorous fowls. If the poultry 
house and poultry yards are kept clean, most of the poultry dis- 
eases will be prevented. Uncleanliness favors disease. There 
are so many diseases to which poultry are subject that it would 
require a separate book to treat them all. A few diseases and 
enemies of poultry will be mentioned. Write to your state 
experiment station for information on diseases that may now be 
troubling your poultry ; and to the 
United States Department of Agriculture 
for further suggestions. 

Scaly leg is caused by a small mite get- 
ting under the scales of the shanks of the 
fowls. The symptom of the disease is an 
enlargement of the shanks, usually just 
above the toes. To treat this disease, dip 
the shanks in kerosene. This kills the 
mites. Repeat the treatment in about 
a week. Two treatments are enough, ex- 
cept in rare cases. 

Roup is a contagious disease which 
appears on the face of the fowl in the 
form of a tumor. Often the eyes are 
almost swollen shut. There is a discharge from the nostrils 
which sometimes obstructs the breathing. In treating this 
disease, isolate all the fowls affected. With the thumb press 
all cheesy matter out of the tumor, and dip the part affected 
in kerosene. Bulletin No. 530, United States Department 
of Agriculture, says, " Put sufficient permanganate of pot- 
ash in all drinking water to color it a deep red." This 
is a cure as well as a prevention of roup. Some author- 




FlG. 



124. — The common 
hen louse. 



POULTRY 257 

ities claim that roup is one of our most injurious poultry 
diseases. 

Lice and mites are controlled by keeping the house clean and 
spraying occasionally with a lime solution, or greasing fowls with 
equal parts of lard and kerosene. Insect powders will also kill 
lice and mites. 

Summary. — The products from chickens rank favorably 
with other sources of farm incomes. The sales from poultry 
products in many cases provides groceries, shoes, and clothing. 
The selection of 'good pure-bred varieties, according to the Stand- 
ard of Perfection, proper housing, feed, and care increase the sales 
from poultry products. Eliminating non-layers and low pro- 
ducers raises production. Cleanliness and combating disease 
are essential to profitable production of poultry. The average 
yearly egg production in the United States is estimated to be 
about 60 eggs per hen. It should be 120 or more. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Shapes of Breeds of Fowls. — With the Standard of 
Perfection in hand, study the pictures of the various breeds of chickens 
as to shape, kind of comb, length of back, angle of tail, etc. 

2. Verifying Shape Differences of Different Breeds of Fowls. — With 
fowls of several pure breeds verify .the shape differences noted in Exercise I, 
and as described in the Standard of Perfection. 

3. A Study of the Color Markings of Different Varieties of Fowls. — 
Study from live fowls the color of one or two pure-bred varieties, reading 
the description of the variety from the Standard of Perfection, while the 
fowl is being studied. 

These three exercises, if properly done, will require at least five full one- 
hour periods. When these lessons are attempted, the teacher should have, 
for each one, at least an hour to one and one-half hours at her disposal. 

4. Judging Fowls of Several Varieties. — Judge at least one fowl from 
several varieties, using the Standard of Perfection, and especially that part 
in which cutting for defects and general disqualifications are mentioned. 



258 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Score Card for Different Classes of Fowls 
(Note their variations) 





American 
Class 


Asiatic Class 


Mediterra- 
nean Class 


English Class 


Section of Fowl 


Perfect 


Perfect 


Perfect 


Perfect 




Shape 


Color 


Shape 

4 

4 
4 
8 

2 
2 
2 
2 
4 
4 

6 

5 
6 

5 
3 


Color 


Shape 


Color 


Shape 


Color 


Symmetry .... 

Weight 

Condition .... 

Comb 

Head 

Beak ..... 

Eyes 

Ear lobes and wattles 

Neck 

Wings 

Back 

Tail 

Breast 

Body and fluff . . 
Legs and toes . . 


4 
4 
4 
8 

2 
2 
2 
2 
4 

4 
5 
5 
5 
S 
3 


2 
2 
2 
2 

6 
6 

5 
5 
5 
3 
3 


2 
2 
2 
2 

6 
6 

4 
5 
4 
3 
3 


4 

4 

4 

lO 

2 
2 
2 
4 

3 
4 

5 
5 
4 
3 

2 


4 

2 
2 

6 

5 
6 

5 
4 
4 

2 
2 


4 
4 
4 
8 

2 
2 
2 
2 
4 

4 
6 
6 
6 

5 
5 


2 
2 
2 
2 

4 
6 

4 
4 
4 
3 
3 


Total .... 




lOO 




lOO 




lOO 




lOO 



5. Estimating the Cost of Poultry Houses. — Have the pupil bring an 
estimate as to the cost of construction and building material of some poultry 
houses, giving dimensions, etc. Be definite. 

6. Points Observed in Some Poultry Houses. — Have the pupils bring 
the following data and record it in a notebook in the following form : 

Points to be Observed in Some Poultry Houses 



Kind of 
Foundation 



Kind of 

Wall and 

Description 



Kind of 
Roof 



Provision 

for 

Ventilation 



Amount 

OF Floor 

Space 



Amount 

of Glass 

Space 



Height in 

Rear, Front 

etc. 



POULTRY 



259 



0. Beak. 

1. Comb. 

2. Face. 

3. Wattles. 

4. Ear lobe. 

5. Hackle. 

6. Breast. 

7. Back. 

8. Saddle. 




Fig. 125. 



Parts of a fowl 



9. Saddle feathers. 

10. Sickles. 

11. Lesser sickles. 

12. Tail coverts. 

13. Main tail feathers. 

14. Wing bow. 

15. Wing coverts, forming wing-bar. 

16. Secondaries, wing bay. 

17. Primaries, or flight feathers. 



iS. Flight coverts. 

19. Point of breastbone. 

20. Fluff 

21. Thigh. 

22. Knee joint. 

23. Shank. 

24. Spur. 

25. Toes, or claws. 



26o 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



7. Judge Egg according to Egg Score Card. One Dozen as a Sample. 
Egg Score Card 



Scale of Points 


H 

H 


1 

g 


Q 
M 
H 


H 


U 


g 





H 

a; 
w 

H 


Q 


m 

g 


i 

u 


1. Weight 

2. Uniformity of size 

3. Uniformity of shape 

4. Uniformity of color 

5. Shell texture 

6. Condition of shell 

7. Quality (candling) 

1. Size of air cell 

2. Interior color 

Total 


24 

6 
6 

8 
4 
4 

24 

24 

100 








— 


— 


— 


— 








Explanation of Score Card. 

1. Weight. — 24 Points. — Extras, weigh 26-28 and firsts 24-26 ounces 
per dozen. Cut 2 points for each ounce under or over weight in either class. 

2. Uniformity of Size. — 6 Points. — All eggs should be uniform in 
size. One-half point is allowed each egg. For each egg varying from the 
average size, cut according to judgment. 

3. Uniformity of Shape. — 6 Points. — All eggs should be uniform in 
shape. For each egg varying markedly in shape, cut from one-fourth to 
one-half point. 

4. Uniformity of Color. — 8 Points. — White eggs should be of a uniform 
white shade. Brown eggs may vary in shade ; but all eggs of a sample 
should be of the same shade. Two-thirds of a point is allowed for each 
egg. Cut according to judgment. 

5. Shell Texture. — 4 Points. — The shell should be free from spots, 
breaks, wrinkles, and roughness. Cut one-third of a point for each egg 
showing the above defects. 

6. Condition of Shell. — 4 Points. — Shell should be bright, fresh, un- 
washed, free from dirt or stain. Cut according to judgment. One-third 
point allowed each egg. 



POULTRY 



261 



7. Quality (candle eggs). 

1 . Size of air cell. — 24 Points. — Test eggs with candle, kerosene, 
lamp, or electric light. Air cells should be small, not larger than a dime, 
showing freshness. Two points are allowed for each egg. An egg showing 
an air cell as large as a quarter, cut the limit, two points. Cut for inter- 
vening sizes of air cells according to judgment. 

2. Interior Color. — 24 Points. — The interior color when candled 
should have a reddish color. An egg having a dark color or a floating yolk 
is defective. Two points are allowed each egg. Cut according to judg- 
ment. 

Disqualifications. — A broken, cracked, musty, chick-developed, floating- 
yolked, or blood-ringed egg will disqualify the whole dozen. 




Courtesy of International Harvester Co. 
Fig. 126. — A dozen eggs should weigh from 24 to 28 ounces. 



8. To Study the Loss of Weight of Eggs. — Weigh the same dozen eggs 
weekly for eight or ten weeks ; and keep the weekly weights. Find at the 
close of the experiment the per cent of loss. (This loss is due to evapora- 
tion.) 

9. Application of the Hogan Test. — Examine fowls for capacity, thick- 
ness of pelvic bone, condition, — and fill a miscellaneous column, in- 
cluding a statement on width of back, constitution, etc. Record your 
findings. What is the capacity of each hen examined for egg pro- 
duction ? 



262 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



10. Survey of the Poultry in the District. — Record as follows. (May be 
an exercise in which all pupils take part.) 



Farmer's Name 



Variety of Fowls 



Class to Which 
They Belong 



Breed 



Number 




CHAPTER XVI 

NATURE OF SOILS 

Introduction to the Study of Soils. — The soil is the richest 
agricultural heritage of all ages. It is the asset of all assets. 
Upon it and its fruitfulness everything is dependent. The mines, 
the factories, and the commerce of the world would soon stop, 
and our cities would crumble to dust, were it not for the fact 
that " Mother Earth " continues to respond constantly to the 
hands and the intelligence of man. Let the earth 
withhold her yields for one year, and a gloom of 
sorrow, and even death, would appear. For these 
reasons we should diligently study the soil ; how 
to maintain its fertility, and by better practices to 
make our people more prosperous, prepared, and Fig 127.- Pore 

■^ -^ ' '■ ^ ' X i. space of sandy sou. 

peaceful. Large soil particles, 

Texture of Soils. — The texture of soils refers ^'^^'^ ^^'^ ^^^^^' 
to the size of the soil particles. The texture of a coarse sand 
is coarse ; the texture of clay is fine ; the soil particles of clay 
soils are the smallest of all soil particles The following meas- 
urements and names of soils on page 264 are based upon the 
size of the soil particles.^ 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Samples of clay ; fine and coarse sand ; tall glass bottles, test tubes, 
or graduates ; two one-quart tin cans, and, if possible, tall glass tubes 
(i inch X 3 feet). 

* Bureau of Soils, United States Department of Agriculture. 
263 



264 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Fine gravel 



Coarse sand 

Medium sand 
Fine sand 
Very fine sand 
Silt . . . . 
Clay, less than 



Measurement 



to 2 



millimeters 



I to 0.5 millimeter 

0.5 to 0.25 millimeter 
0.25 to o.io millimeter 
o.io to 0.05 millimeter 
0.05 to 0.005 millimeter 
0.005 to o-oo millimeter 



Relative Sizes 




Clay soil particles are microscopic. One sand particle, 2 
millimeters in diameter, if crushed and ground to the size of the 
finest clay particle, would make thousands of such particles. 
(See Exercises i and 2.) 

The composition of six types of soils, from an analysis based 
upon the texture of the soil, is as follows : 





Clay 


Clay 


Silt 


Fine Sandy 


Sandy 


Coarse 




Son. 


Loam 


Loam 


Loam 


Loam 


Sand 


Clay .... 


5° 


35 


20 


IS 


15 


5 


Silt .... 


30 


42 


60 


30 


20 


10 


Very fine sand 


12 


15 


10 


25 


15 


10 


Fine sand . . 


5 


5 


6 


20 


25 


30 


Medium sand 


2 


2 


2 


5 


10 


25 


Coarse sand . 


I 


I 


I 


4 


10 


15 


Fine gravel 





_„° 


I 


I 


5 


S 


Total 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 



NATURE OF SOILS 265 

The question may be asked what is the composition of a clay 
soil? Sandy loam? Silt loam? These questions should be 
answered from the above table. 

Relation of Size of Soil Particles to Water-holding Capacity. 
— Coarse sandy soil particles have much less surface area than 
do the particles of clay soils. Cutting a cubic inch of soil into 
four equal cubes doubles the surface area. The film water a 
solid cubic inch could hold is one-half as much as the same block 
would hold if it were cut into cubes one-half inch each way. 
But if a cubic inch of rock were crumbled into a thousand soil 
particles, the surface area is increased many, many times, and 
the amount of film water it is capable of holding would be in 
direct proportion to the additional surface exposed. Clay soils 
will hold much more water than sandy soils. The water-hold- 
ing capacity of a coarse sandy soil, a clay, and a humus soil is 
as follows : ^ 



100 POUNDS SAND 
100 POUNDS CUY 
100 POUNDS HUMUS 



f 22 LB. WATER 
^^■HH^^^Bi 55 LB. WATER 



143 LB. WATER 



Graph g. The water-holding capacity of various types of soil. 

It has been estimated that the surface area of a cubic foot of 
clay soil particles is 150,000 square feet, and that the surface area 
of the particles of a cubic foot of coarse sand is 40,000 square 
feet. From this it is apparent that a clay soil holds more 
capillary water than does a coarse sandy soil. It is also evident 
that an inch of rain falling upon a clay soil does not wet it as 
deeply as the same amount of rain wets sandy soil. (See Exer- 
cise 3.) 

1 Hunt and Burkett : Soils and Crops. 



266 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Pore Space in Soils. — Sandy soil particles afford less pore 
space than do clay soils. (See Fig. 127.) Large particles have 
small pore space. Small particles have large pore space. 

If a small soil particle were placed between each of four large 
particles, the open pore space would be closed to some extent. 
If a dozen soil particles were placed in the same open space, the 
open pore space would become very small. 




Fig. 128. 



Simple and cheap apparatus which may be used to show percolation of water 
through dififerent kinds of soil. 



Water Passing Through Soils. (Percolation.) — A heavy 
rain readily passes through a coarse sandy soil, but will percolate 
through a clay soil very slowly. Water passes through a clay 
soil so slowly that the top layers soon become saturated to such 
an extent that the surface begins to wash. It is for this reason 
that clay soils wash so readily. The two reasons for water per- 



NATURE OF SOILS 267 

colating through a sandy soil so much more rapidly than through 
clay are : 

1. A sandy soil has much larger pore spaces. 

2. A sandy soil having less surface area lessens the friction 
in percolation. (See Exercise 4.) 

Some Facts about the Porosity and the Texture of Soil. — 
Any soil that is well drained, and loses its free water rapidly, is 
a warm soil, sometimes called an " early soil." Such soils get 
warm much quicker than do soils that hold water. For this 
reason a sandy soil may be ready for spring plantings a few 
weeks earher than a clay soil. " It requires about twenty heat 
units to raise the temperature of one hundred pounds of dry soil 
one degree Fahr. To raise the temperature of the same weight 
of water one degree Fahr. requires 100 heat units. But the 
effect of water is most striking when it evaporates. To evap- 
orate 100 pounds of water requires 966.6 heat units." ^ Since 
clay soils will not permit percolation, most of the water must 
be taken off by evaporation. It is for this reason that a clay 
soil requires so much heat to warm it. All the heat is required 
to evaporate the surplus water. Since truck farmers want 
early crops, they prefer sandy soils because they get warm early. 

Coarse-textured soils permit the free circulation of air more 
readily than do fine-textured soils. This is one reason why sandy 
soils free themselves quickly of a surplus of soil water. 

Bacterial life is more active in a well-aerated soil than in a 
*' water-logged " soil. Organic matter is transformed to avail- 
able plant foods by bacterial Hfe. A medium dry soil aids in 
this work. 

A soil of fine texture usually contains more available plant 
foods. This is true for two reasons : (i) The finely textured 
soils have an origin having a better chemical basis. Sandy 

^ Warren : Elements of Agriculture. 



268 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

soils are of sandstone origin, and contain little usable plant 
foods. The clay soils are of limestone formation, and lime is 
needed in plant growth. (2) Fine soil particles expose more 
surface to the soil water, and thus chemical reactions take place 
more rapidly, and more plant foods are thereby elaborated and 
made available. 

Adaptability of Soils. — Soils of a sandy formation are adapt- 
able to truck and vegetable gardening. Melons, onions, turnips, 
all root crops, and deep-rooted plants thrive best on sandy loam 
soils. Grasses, which have a fibrous root system, do better in 
soils of a limestone formation. The corn, wheat, oat, and blue 
grass regions have soils of a medium fine texture, largely of lime- 
stone formation, mixed with some sand and a great deal of or- 
ganic matter. Whitney gives the following table to show the 
relation of the number of soil particles per gram, and the kind 
of farming to which each is adapted : 

Son, Particles per Gram 

Early truck 1,955,000,000 

Truck and small fruit 3,955,000,000 

Tobacco 6,786,000,000 

Wheat 10,228,000,000 

Grass and wheat 14,735,000,000 

It will be observed that an early truck soil is one with but few 
large soil particles, and that typical grass soil has more soil 
particles per gram. They are, therefore, much smaller. Or- 
chard soils should be of a loose porous nature. They should be 
deep, and the subsoil should also be porous. Orchards will not 
thrive in a compact clay soil. 

For general purposes, deep, black loam soils are the best. 
Black loam soils have about the following composition : humus, 
3 to 5 per cent ; silt, 40 to 60 per cent ; fine sand, 5 to 10 per 
cent; clay, 10 to 25 per cent. Such soils are fairly fertile and 
are easily cultivated. (See Exercise 5.) 



NATURE OF SOILS 269 

Summary. — The soil is our richest agricultural heritage. 
The texture of the soil refers to the size of the soil particles ; 
clays have a fine texture, and sands a coarse texture. Water 
percolates through sandy soil rapidly, and very slowly through 
clay soil. Sandy soils will hold less film or capillary water than 
clay soils. Sandy soils are therefore more adaptable to truck- 
ing, and heavier soils are suited to general farming. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Texture of Some Soils. — Secure two kinds of sand — 
a fine and a coarse sand — and some clay. Wet each, and examine by rubbing 
each soil between finger and thumb. Describe each soil. Also hold soil 
to ear while rubbing. Describe the sound produced. Record findings. 
Insert drawing into notebook, showing the comparative sizes of the particles 
examined. 

2. To Determine which Soils Settle More Rapidly. — Put a small quan- 
tity of coarse sand, fine sand, and clay in a tall bottle or test tube. Add 
water until the bottle is three-fourths full. Shake thoroughly, inverting the 
bottle occasionally while shaking. After soil and water are well mixed, let it 
settle. Note the order in which the soils settle. Draw and record results. 

3. To Find the Amount of Water Soils Will Hold. — Get two quart tin 
cans, make some small holes in the bottom of the cans, making the pene- 
trations from the inside. Fill one can with a definite weight of sand, and the 
other one with an equal amount of clay. Pour water into each soil until it 
becomes thoroughly saturated. Keep pouring water in until some of the 
water passes through the soil and comes through the openings. Find weight 
of water required to saturate each soil. The result wiU give the amount of 
water each of the two kinds of soils will hold. Write your findings. 

4. To Study the Relation of Size of Soil Particles to Percolation. — If 
possible, use tubes (about an inch or two in diameter and three or four feet 
long), though long wine bottles with the bottoms broken out wiU do. Tie a 
piece of cloth over the neck of each bottle, and fill one bottle about full 
with well-pulverized clay, and the other with sand. Pour water on each 
soil, and take the time required for water to percolate through each soil. 
Record your findings. 



270 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



5. To Study the Relation of Size of Soil Particles to Capillarity. — Use 
the longest tubes available (though wine bottles will do). Tie a cloth over 
the neck of each bottle. Fill one bottle with sand and the other one with 




Fig. 129. — Pan and glass tubes, illustrating the apparatus used in showing the rise of 

water by capillarity. 

clay. Now set the neck of the bottles in shallow water. See how long it 
will require the water by capillarity to rise to the top. Record as follows : 

Height of Water at Each of Two Successive Four-minute Periods 



Four Minutes 



Eight Minutes 



Twelve Minutes 



Sand . . 
Clay . . 



Write your conclusions. 



CHAPTER XVII 
STRUCTURE OF THE SOIL 

Soil Structure. — Soil structure refers to the arrangement of 
the soil particles. If the soil particles form into groups or into 
crumbs, the soil is said to be friable, loose, and in good tilth. Soils 
that crumble and break readily are in splendid physical condition, 
but, on the other hand, soil that breaks into clods when stirred 
is in poor physical condition. Soils in good physical condition 
hold more water, permit percolation more freely, allow bacteria 
to multiply more rapidly, elaborate more plant foods, and afford 
the best conditions for plant growth. 

Puddling of Soils. — Sometimes we cannot make snowballs, 
for the snow will not pack. If we wait until the snow begins 
to melt, we shall find that we can then make compact, icy snow- 
balls. Similarly, soil, if tilled, driven, or tramped over when it 
is wet, will pack just as snow will pack at a proper temperature. 
By this packing of the soil, known as puddling, the structure of 
the soil is broken down and gives the evidences of poor tilth. 
The particles are crowded so closely together that there is not 
sufficient pore space left for the necessary amount of air or 
water. 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

The same as in preceding chapter ; and some well-decomposed organic 
matter and lime. 

271 



272 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The formation of crusts on the soil during heavy rains is the 
result of a broken-down structure. The soil becomes puddled. 
Such a crust brings all the soil particles in close contact, promotes 
capillarity, and allows the wind and sun to carry away the soil 
water. If the soil water is to be conserved, the crust must be 
broken up. (See Exercise i.) 

Maintenance of Good Structure. — The factors which aid in 
keeping the soil in good physical condition are: (i) tillage, (2) 
addition of organic matter, (3) liming the soil, and (4) drainage. 

1. Soils should not be tilled when wet, for then the structure 
of the soil is broken down, as in puddling. Plowing a soil when 
wet causes the soil particles to slide one upon the other, bringing 
them much closer together, and breaking down the crumb struc- 
ture. To quote Professor Whitson : " In this condition the soil 
is much denser, and does not permit air or water to pass through 
it readily. There are then practically no air spaces, all the 
spaces between the soil grains being occupied by water. When 
clay soils of very fine texture are puddled, then dried and baked, 
they become hard or even stony. This is the basis of the process 
of common brick making." 

Cultivating soils, driving over fields, or grazing pastures while 
wet, are bad farm practices. Soils should be stirred only when 
the structure and tilth of the soil will not be harmed. 

2. Frequently, soils puddle readily because of a lack of organic 
matter. The addition of organic matter partially protects soils 
from beating rains, and also helps to hold the soil particles apart. 
Organic matter aids aeration, percolation, and bacterial develop- 
ment, and makes for conditions which prevent the breaking 
down of the soil structure. A soil rich in humus and decaying 
plant life does not puddle so easily as does a soil that is devoid of 
humus and organic matter. (See Exercise 2.) 

3. Soils often pack and puddle because of the absence of lime, 



STRUCTURE OF THE SOIL 



273 




Limed soil — 
soil particles are 
flocculated. 



Unlimed soil 

■ soil particles 

remain separate. 

Fig. 130. 



This benefits 



which improves the soil structure. The " grouping " tendency 
of the soil is increased by the addition of lime. Lime effervesces 
in the presence of soil water and keeps the soil loose and friable. 
The compounding of soil particles is 
indicated in Fig. 130. 

In the figure shown it will be 
noted that in the limed soil the par- 
ticles have formed into groups, and 
are said to be flocculated. In the 
unlimed soil, the particles remain 
separate. Such a soil puddles easily. 
(See Exercises 3 and 4.) 

4. Proper drainage rids the soil of surplus water, 
it in several ways : 

a. It permits more air to get into the soil. 

b. Bacteria thrives better in a well-drained soil, and nitrifica- 
tion is hastened. 

c. A well-drained soil warms up more quickly in early spring. 
All of these points, due to proper drainage, improve the tilth 

of the soil. 

Summary. — Soil structure refers to the grouping or the ar- 
rangement of the soil particles. A soil of good structure is friable 
and in good tilth. A soil with poor structure and tilth puddles 
readily. A good physical condition of the soil may be secured 
and be maintained to a fair degree by: i. Proper methods of 
tillage. 2. The addition of organic matter. 3. Liming the 
soil. 4. Drainage. (See Exercise 5.) 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Effect of Puddling. — Put about equal quantities of clay 
in each of two saucers. Add enough water to each to well saturate it. 
Stir one thoroughly. Do not stir the soil in the other saucer. Set both 

T 



274 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

away and let them dry. After they are dry, try to crumble each between 
finger and thumb. Record your findings. What important principles 
pertaining to farm practices may be deducted from the experiment ? 

2. A Study of the Relation of Organic Matter to Puddling. — Mix to- 
gether about equal quantities of well-decomposed organic matter and 
ordinary soil. Wet well and stir the mixture thoroughly. Wet and stir 
another batch of the same soil without the organic matter. Set the two 
soils away to dry. After they are dry, pulverize each soil with your hands. 
Record your findings as to the effect of the presence of organic matter upon 
soil structure. 

3. To Study the Relation of Lime to Puddling. — Take two batches of 
clay, each weighing two hundred grams. Add to one batch 50 grams of 
lime. Mix well. Leave the other batch unlimed. Wet each soil thor- 
oughly and work into a mud ball or brick. Set them away to dry. When 
dry, pulverize them with your hands. Record your findings. What effect 
does liming have upon the structure of the soil ? 

4. To See if Lime Flocculates the Soil Particles. — If test tubes are avail- 
able, use them ; if not, use tall bottles. Put about an equal amount of clay 
and lime into one bottle, and into the other bottles put clay alone. Fill 
each bottle about full with water. Mix thoroughly, then let the bottles 
stand until the water above the soil in each becomes clear. Record your 
results and make a drawing showing the results. Record the time required 
for the water in each bottle to become clear. How do you account for the 
difference ? 

5. Define soil structure, puddling, baking, and flocculation of soils. Write 
the definitions, and append a statement with each definition. 



CHAPTER XVIII 
THE SOIL WATER SUPPLY 

Importance of Soil Water. — We have already learned the 
importance of a proper water supply for plant growth. It has 
been found by experimentation that to produce a hundred pounds 
of dry matter of various farm crops requires from 300 to 750 
pounds of water. Water is taken into the roots, then through 
the plants, and then to the leaves where it is transpired into the 
air. 

Amount of water lost by transpiration for each ton of dry 
matter produced in the crop has been found to be : ^ 

Corn 310 tons equal to 2.64 inches rainfall 

Red clover 453 tons equal to 4.03 inches rainfall 

Barley 3Q3 tons equal to 3.43 inches rainfall 

Oats 522 tons equal to 4.76 inches rainfall 

Potatoes 422 tons equal to 3.73 inches rainfall 

Similar results have been found by European experimenters. 

If it is true that farm plants require from 300 to 750 pounds of 
soil water to produce one pound of dry matter, then it may 
also be concluded that weeds require enormous quantities of 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Samples of soils brought from fields ; two one-gallon earthen jars, or 
buckets ; scales ; six porcelain evaporating dishes. 

^ King, University of Wisconsin. 

275 



276 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



water for their development. Weeds should therefore be 
destroyed by proper tillage. 

Plants are largely composed of water. The composition of a 
few plants at the time of maturity of the green roughage follows : 



Corn . . 
Wheat . . 
Oats . . . 
Blue grass . 
White clover 



Water 


Total Solids 


79-3 


20.7 


72.6 


27.4 


73-9 


26.1 


76.2 


23.8 


78.2 


21.8 



The composition of other plants is very similar to that of 
corn, wheat, oats, blue grass, and white clover. 
Some of the functions of water for plants follow : 

1. It makes up a large part of the composition of the plant 
and is an actual plant food. 

2. It serves as a carrier of plant food. Plant foods are taken 
into the plant through water solutions. These plant foods are 
carried in such small quantities that it is necessary for enormous 
quantities of water to pass through plants in order that they 
may be properly nourished. 

3. Water helps to maintain the proper temperature of plants. 
Water, in the transpiration process, cools the leaves to a con- 
siderable extent. Young shoots of plants would be burned up 
were it not for the cooling efifect of the water that passes through 
them. 

Water is so important that Vivian, in First Principles of Soil 
Fertility, says : " There is no doubt, however, that the proper 
condition of moisture is the most important single factor in de- 
termining the fertility of the land, and that more soils fail to 



THE SOIL WATER SUPPLY 277 

produce good crops for lack of it than for any other cause." 
Water in proper amounts and coming at the right seasons prac- 
tically controls the yields. Twenty inches of rainfall when prop- 
erly distributed is sufficient to produce the best corn yields ; 
but, when improperly distributed, may cause an absolute failure 
of the crop. Sometimes an additional rain or two would double 
the crop yield. Hunt and Burkett, in Soils and Crops, say : "A 
piece of land was once planted to corn. The yield was thirty 
bushels per acre. The next year it was planted with the same 
kind of corn and otherwise treated as in the previous year. The 
yield was ninety bushels. During the first season, the rainfall 
for the five growing months was thirteen inches ; the second 
season it was twenty- two inches for a like period. The extra 
nine inches of rainfall was the principal factor in producing the 
additional sixty bushels of corn." (See Exercise i.) 

Forms of Soil Water. — Soil water is found in three forms : 

1. Free or gravitational water. 

2. Capillary or film water. 

3. Hygroscopic water. 

When a soil becomes so full of water that some of the water 
seeps away, that which seeps away is called free or gravitational 
water. Free water is harmful to plants because it keeps the 
air from the soil and prevents the work of the beneficial nitrifying 
soil bacteria. Tile drains are laid to carry away gravitational 
water. 

Capillary or film water adheres to the soil particles just as 
water adheres to one's hand when it is dipped into water. Every 
soil particle is covered with capillary water, which moves by 
capillarity from soil particle to soil particle. And just as the oil 
comes up the wick and is burned, the soil water comes to the 
surface of the ground and evaporates. Capillary water is the 
form in which plants can use it to best advantage. Capillary 



278 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

water, under good field conditions, constitutes from 20 to 30 per 
cent of tiie weight of the soil. 

Hygroscopic water is water that exists in soils when they are 
air dry and has little if any value for plant growth. The driest 
road dust contains hygroscopic water. Soils must contain about 
12 per cent water before plants can secure any. Hygroscopic 
water seldom exceeds 3 per cent of the weight of the soil. (See 
Exercise 2.) 

Regulating the Water Supply. — Since water is such an im- 
portant plant food, and is so frequently a limiting factor in plant 
development, every farmer should study carefully how to con- 
serve the soil water. Soil water escapes from the soil in four 
ways: (i) by drainage, (2) by evaporation, (3) by plants using 
it, and (4) by transpiration. We shall discuss soil drainage and 
the evaporation of soil moisture in this chapter ; the loss of 
water from the soil by the last two ways named will not be dis- 
cussed, except to say that soil water should be so regulated 
that plants at all times have sufficient but not an excess of 
water, and that transpiration is not reduced below the normal 
amount. 

I. Often there is an excess of water in the soil. This may be 
partially disposed of by drainage. There are large areas in the 
United States that are marshy and swampy during certain 
seasons of the year, but when drained are among the most fertile 
lands of our country. 

There are two systems of drainage : surface drainage and under- 
ground drainage. In surface drainage open ditches carry ofif the 
surplus water. Some soils have a compact undersoil through 
which water will not percolate. Sometimes the water table is so 
near the surface of the ground that drainage is almost impossible. 
Many such fields have been made productive by the use of tile 
drainage. Four-inch tiles have been found more satisfactory 



THE SOIL WATER SUPPLY 



279 




Fig. 131. — Two systems of arranging tile drains — 
when laid maps should be kept, showing the location of 
the tiles. 



than smaller tiles. A large tile is more easily laid than a smaller 
one and does not become stopped up so easily. A proper fall 
will help in making a 
tile drain more serv- 
iceable. A four-inch 
tile should have at 
least two-inch fall per 
each one hundred feet, 
while a six-inch tile 
may have less. And 
tiles with a foot diam- 
eter may have as little 
as one-half to three- 
fourths inch fall per 
one hundred feet. 
Accurate measurement 
records and maps should be kept on any drainage project, to 
help in repair work. Proper drainage often makes a soil man- 
ageable and productive. 

2. Too Httle moisture in the soil more often hurts plant growth 
than too much. The rainfall in the growing season is often in- 
sufhcient for the best plant growth. Therefore, the water that 
is in the soil must be conserved. Soil water is lost mainly by 
evaporation. The sun and the air take up all the water that 
comes to the surface of the ground ; water comes to the surface 
by capillarity. The particles of the soil are all in contact, piled 
one above the other. Capillary water travels in any direction, 
from particle to particle. When the water reaches the surface 
of the soil, it is taken away by the sun and the air. A compact 
surface or crust fosters capillarity. Every one has observed that 
well-tilled fields are moist and black in the morning, but lighter 
in color a little later in the day. The black color indicates that 



28o 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



the soil is moist. When this moisture is removed by the sun 
and wind, the soil becomes lighter and drier. The extent to 
which moisture is removed by evaporation depends upon the 
texture, the tilth, the amount of water in the soil, and the atmos- 
pheric conditions. It has been found that as much as i^ pounds 
of water per square foot evaporated daily. 

The conservation of moisture lost by evaporation is one of the 
big problems in the management of soils. If the soil could be 

protected from the wind 
and the direct sunshine, 
the losses of soil moisture 
would be greatly reduced. 
The reason we find the 
soil moist under a board is 
because it is protected. A 
bunch of straw, weeds, or 
leaves may protect the soil 
so that the soil moisture 
cannot be taken up by the 
sun and the wind. This is 
called a mulch. Growing 
potatoes are sometimes covered with straw. In dry seasons this 
is an excellent practice, for the soil moisture is thus maintained. 
Leaves, straw, boards, sawdust, and similar things may be 
used as a mulch to the soil, but the most practical method of 
protecting the soil and conserving the soil water is by the use 
of the soil mulch. A soil mulch is maintained by keeping the 
top 2 or 3 inches of the soil well stirred and pulverized. This 
blanket protector of the soil is called a soil mulch or dust mulch. 
The earth mulch conserves soil moisture because it destroys the 
close contact of the soil particles, rendering it impossible for 
moisture to pass by capillary action from particle to particle. 




Fig. 132. — An earth mulch such as is illus- 
trated to the right above conserves soil moisture, 
while the compact soil, as illustrated on the 
left, promotes the evaporation of soil moisture. 



THE SOIL WATER SUPPLY 



281 



The moisture may rise in the soil up to the dust mulch, but 
cannot go any farther. Consequently, the air and the sun can- 




FiG. 133. — The cracks in the soil expose additional surface to the wind and sunshine. 
Much soil moisture is thus lost. 



not draw heavily on the water in the soil. All farmers know 
by experience that stirring the surface of the soil during a dry 
season aids very much in the growth of the crop. A three-inch 
mulch has been found most effective in preventing evaporation. 



282 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Soil mulches are made by the use of the hoe, harrow, narrow, 
shoveled cultivators, and other similar tools and implements. 
Occasionally, mower wheels are dragged between the rows of 
corn to break up the crust caused by rains. This is done after 
the corn is too large for the usual methods of cultivation. It has 
been found in unusually dry seasons that the acreage yield may 
be increased from 5 to 10 bushels by the use of the drag. (See 
Exercises 3 and 4.) 

Level cultivation is preferable to ridging the soil, if the soil 
moisture is to be conserved, because ridged soil exposes more 
surface to the sun and the wind, and therefore causes a greater 
amount of moisture to be lost. 

Summary. — The lack of soil water is the most frequent limit- 
ing factor of plant growth. Capillary water can be used to 
better advantage by growing plants than the other two forms of 
soil water. Drainage may be employed to rid soils of an excess 
of soil water. The maintenance of an earth mulch aids greatly 
in the conservation oi soil moisture. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Find the Per Cent of Water in Soils under Field Conditions. — 
Secure some soil from a near-by field. Weigh out, say, 250 grams of soil, 
and then put soil in some vessel and heat over a stove until all the mois- 
ture is driven off. Weigh the dry soil. Find the per cent of moisture 
the soil contained. 

2. To Find the Per Cent of Hygroscopic Water in Road Dust. — Take 200 
grams of the driest road dust obtainable, and by the method described 
in Exercise i, find the per cent of hygroscopic water in road dust. 

3. To Study the Effect of an Earth Mulch. — Fill two quart tin cans with 
about an equal amount of soil. Weigh each. Put about a one and one- 
half inch dust over the soil in one of the cans. Set both soils in the same 
place and weigh both soils on alternate days for about three or four weeks. 
Record weights in the following manner : 



THE SOIL WATER SUPPLY 

Weights of Mulched and Unmulched Soils 



283 



Date 



Initial weight 

Weights on soils on intervening days 

Final weight 

Total loss 

Percentage loss 




Unmulched Son, 



What are your findings? 
experiment ? 



What conclusions can you draw from the 



4. To Find the Extent to which Plants can Remove Water from the Soil. 

— Fill one gallon bucket or jar with coarse sand, another one with soil from 
a garden. Plant corn or wheat in each one. Maintain conditions so that 
the plants will grow. When plants have several leaves, stop watering them 
and note the number of days that elapse before the plants begin to wilt. 
As soon as plants are well wilted, find the per cent of moisture in each soil, 
using about 200 grams of soil to make the test. Compare the per cent 
of moisture still remaining in each soil. Write your findings. 



CHAPTER XIX 



PLANT FOODS 



Foods Essential to Plant Growth. — Plants generally contain 
fourteen elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, siUcon, 
chlorine, and manganese, of which the first ten are essential to 
plant growth. Experiments have shown that when one of the 
ten elements is not present, plants will not grow. Hydrogen, 
oxygen, and carbon constitute the greatest part of plants. The 
other elements are found in small quantities only. To suggest 
the general composition of plants we give the composition of one 
thousand pounds of the corn plant : ^ 

Water 
793 



Corn 
plant 

lOOO 

pounds 



I Hydrogen 88.1 
\ Oxygen 704.9 



Dry 

matter 
207 



Organic 
matter { 
195 



Protein 18 
Fats 
Fiber 50 
. Carbohydrates 122 



■ Nitrogen 2.9 
Carbon 90.5 
Oxygen 88.9 

. Hydrogen 12.7 



■ Chlorine 0.4 
Potash 4.0 
Phosphoric acid 1.2 
Lime 1.6 
Ash 12 { Magnesia 1.4 
Iron oxide 0.3 
Sulphuric acid 0.3 
Soda 0.4 
Silica 2.4 

Vivian : First Principles of Soil Fertility. 
284 



PLANT FOODS 285 

Sodium, silicon, chlorine, and manganese are very frequently 
present in plants, yet they are regarded by some authorities as 
not essential to plant growth. 

Sources of Plant Foods. — Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen come 
from the air and from water. Water, which is composed of 
hydrogen and oxygen, makes up the greatest part of the plant, 
as we have already learned. Carbon comes from the air. In 
ten thousand parts of air, there are three to four parts of carbon 
dioxide. Decaying organic matter, and the air exhaled from 
animals, are constantly restoring what is used by plants. Carbon 
is frequently not present in the soil in the proper amount. Nitro- 
gen makes up a small part of plants. Although four-fifths of 
the air is nitrogen, it is one of the most Umiting elements of plant 
growth. Nitrogen in a proper form is comparatively rare in the 
soil. It requires about 40 pounds of nitrogen to make 30 
bushels of wheat. It has been found by experiment that the 
rainfall brings down to the soil annually from 2 to 3 pounds of 
nitrogen per acre. As we have already learned, the bacterial 
life on the root of leguminous crops forms some nitrogen. The 
amount of nitrogen added to the soil in this manner is also small. 
More nitrogen must be supphed by barnyard manures and com- 
mercial fertilizers. These will be discussed in a later chapter. 

The elenients iron, sulphur, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, 
potassium, silicon, chlorine, calcium, and nitrogen are supplied 
by the soil. The first four elements are inexhaustible. Calcium, 
like nitrogen, is often limited in supply. Soils are composed 
largely of decomposed rocks. The elements named in this para- 
graph, excepting nitrogen, in combination with oxygen, really 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are: 

Two one-gallon buckets or earthen jars ; subsoil ; some well-rotted 
manure ; various kinds of rocks found in the locality. 



286 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

form the basis of the soil. The nature of the soil, its texture, 
structure, and chemical composition are largely dependent upon 
the kind of rock from which the soil was formed. All the ele- 
ments which plants need for growth are abundant in the soil 
except potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, and sometimes 
lime. (See Exercise i.) 

Organic Matter in Soils. — Organic matter constitutes from 
2 to 5 per cent of the average soil. Decaying organic matter is 
called humus. The dark color of the soil is due to humus. Since 
plants contain the elements necessary for plant growth, the 
addition of plants to the soil enriches it. When plants decay, 
they provide some of the necessary plant foods. As we learned 
from the preceding paragraph, plants are composed of hydrogen, 
oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, potash, phosphorus, magnesium, iron, 
and sulphur. These are added to the soil when barnyard manure, 
green-manure crops, or weeds are plowed under. 

Humus or decaying organic matter in the soil has the following 
important uses : 

1. Organic matter prevents washing of soils because humus 
holds more water than do any of our soils. 

2. Organic matter improves the physical condition of the 
soil. A soil rich in humus is seldom in poor tilth. A sandy 
soil is made more compact by the addition of humus, and a clay 
is made more mellow and porous, 

3. Humus unlocks and hberates plant foods. When water 
comes in contact with organic matter, it forms humic acids 
which dissolve the compounds in the soil particles, and put 
them in a condition to be absorbed by plants. 

4. Organic matter and humus provide food for bacteria which 
are essential in keeping the soil in good condition. 

5. Humus is important because it is rich in nitrogen, potash, 
and phosphorus. 



PLANT FOODS 287 

Therefore, a soil rich in humus is usually a rich fertile soil, and 
one with little humus is not fertile. (See Exercise 2.) 

Function of the Plant Foods in Building up the Plant. — The 
raw materials coming from the soil and the air combine and make 
the plant. The roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits are the 
result of various combinations of the plant foods of soil and air. 
Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen combined in plants make the car- 
bohydrates, or sugars and starches. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, 
and nitrogen combined make the proteins. Fats contain carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, with a larger proportion of carbon than 
in carbohydrates. Fats are often defined as concentrated car- 
bohydrates. Water, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen form these 
three compounds : carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. 

The mineral matter of plants is made up of the ash elements, 
— calcium, magnesium, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, silicon, 
and chlorine. When plants are burned, these elements make the 
ashes. 

Specific Function of the Different Elements in Plant Growth. — 
Soils rich in nitrogen produce luxuriant vegetative growth. 
Plants having an abundance of dark green foliage indicate that 
the soil contains a great deal of available nitrogen. Barnyard 
manures and commercial fertilizers, because they contain nitro- 
gen, make plants grow rapidly and luxuriantly. Nitrogen also 
helps to make the protein found in the grains. 

Potassium builds up the stem and the grain. However, it is 
found in the straw in larger amount than in the grain. Potassium 
aids greatly in making starch in plants. 

Phosphorus helps to form proteins. Since proteins are found 
in the seeds, phosphorus is an element essential to the production 
of seeds or kernels. It also hastens the maturity of seeds. 

Calcium, one of the lime compounds, helps to form leaves. 
Soils in which lime is absent develop plants with small leaves. 



288 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The chemical composition of a few common plant and animal 
products follow : 

Starch Ce Hio O5 

Fruit, sugar Ce H12 Oe 

Stearin (fat in butter) Cs? Huo Oe 

Legumen (a protein in legumes) C718 Him O238N204 S2 

The composition of the grain and straw of corn, wheat, and 
oats, and the number of pounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, potash, 
and calcium each removes from the soil, follow : 



Crop 


Weight of 
Crop 


Nitrogen 


Phosphorus 


Potassium 


Calcium 




Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Pounds 


Wheat grain 30 












bushels . . . 


1800 


33 


6.2 


7-7 


0.70 


Straw .... 


3158 


15 


9.2 


16.2 


5.85 


Oats grain 50 












bushels . . . 


1600 


35 


5-2 


8.3 


I.I 


Straw .... 


3000 


15 


2.6 


29.1 


6.8 


Corn grain 65 












bushels . . . 


3640 


40 


7-9 


12.5 


0.7 


Stalks .... 


6000 


45 


6.1 


66.4 


14-3 



It will be observed from the above table that 30 bushels of 
wheat removes t,^ pounds of nitrogen, and that the straw removes 
15 pounds of nitrogen. Other crops remove the same elements. 
Phosphorus, potassium, and calcium are removed also by each 
crop, and the same elements are needed in plant growth. 

One Element cannot Substitute Another. — Nitrogen cannot 
take the place of potassium or phosphorus. There is no single 
element that can take the place of another element in plant 
growth. If there is sufficient nitrogen in a soil to produce 45 
bushels of wheat to an acre, and potassium to produce 50 bushels, 



PLANT FOODS 



289 



and phosphorus to produce 20 bushels, the maximum yield can- 
not exceed 20 bushels an acre, because the scarcity of phosphorus 
in the soil prohibits a greater yield. It is the limiting factor. 
" No chain is stronger than the weakest link." The weakest link 
in the above acre chain, in its capacity to yield wheat, is phos- 




FiG. 134. — Just as the height of the lowest stave determines the amount of water the 
barrel can hold, so the yield of a crop on a field is determined by that element or condition 
which is least satisfactory. 

phorus, which prevents a greater yield than twenty bushels an 
acre. The principle set forth in this paragraph is illustrated 
diagrammatically in Figure 134.^ 

The limiting factor in plant growth may be a lack of any of the 
following elements, — nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, lime, 
oxygen, and water. Suffice it to say that one element cannot take 

1 Whitson and Walster : Soils and Soil Fertility. 

V 



290 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

the place of another element in plant growth, and a balance of all 
the plant foods is essential to full and complete growth. It is 
impossible to get something out of the soil that is not in the soil. 
Soil exhaustion refers mainly to a scarcity of nitrogen, phos- 
phorus, potassium, or lime. The other elements are usually 
present in excessive quantities. Total exhaustion of soils is 
impossible. By soil exhaustion is meant such a soil condition 
that production of crops is unprofitable. A lack of one or more 
elements in the soil may cause soil exhaustion for practical 
agricultural purposes. (See Exercise 3.) 

Summary. — Fourteen elements are usually found in plants, 
ten of which are essential to plant growth. If any one of the 
ten is not present, plants will not thrive. The soil and air are 
the sources of plant foods. Humus is important in providing 
plant foods and producing good conditions for plant growth. 
One element cannot take the place of another as a plant food, 
and all elements essential to plant growth must be provided in a 
properly balanced form if profitable production is to be secured. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Relation of Humus to Plant Growth. — Fill two one- 
gallon buckets or jars about full with subsoil. To one of these add about a 
quart of well-decomposed manure or organic matter. Plant about six 
kernels of corn or some wheat in each. Maintain good conditions for 
growth. Examine and record findings for about ten weeks of growth. 

2. Study of Different Kinds of Rocks. — Have pupils bring as many kinds 
of rock as are found in the locality, and examine rocks as to color and hard- 
ness. If rock cannot be broken with hands, use a hammer. Study the 
solubility of the rocks brought, by putting parts of the rock in water. 

3. A Study of a Fertile and Non-fertile Soil. — Describe in a well-written 
way the soil and the subsoil of a fertile and a non-fertile soil of your neigh- 
borhood. Describe texture, structure, color, depth, etc. Mention the kind 
of rock or rocks from which the soil was formed. 



CHAPTER XX 
LOSSES OF PLANT FOODS 

Amount of Plant Foods in the Soil. — All soils contain large 
quantities of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. These 
plant foods vary in different soils about as the table indicates. 

Amount of Plant Foods per Acre in the Surface Foot 



Kind of Soil 


Nitrogen per Acre 


Phosphorus per Acre 


Potash per Acre 


Peat .... 
Sand .... 
Clay .... 


Pounds 

1 1, 86 5 
1,675 
3,250 


Pounds 

550 

620 

5,600 


Pounds 

1,697 

39,750 

12,600 



The amount of nitrogen in the surface foot of peat soil to an acre, 
according to the table, is 11,865 pounds, while in a similar area 
of sandy soils there is only 1675 pounds of nitrogen. The 
potassium supply in sandy soils is often relatively large, while 
the phosphorus and nitrogen content is small. The amounts of 
different elements in different kinds of soils will be discussed in 
a later chapter. 

Eighty-five pounds of nitrogen, 14 pounds of phosphorus, and 
79 pounds of potassium are required to produce 65 bushels of 

Note to the Teacher: The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Soils as indicated in Exercise i ; decomposed organic matter as indicated 
in Exercise 2 ; a half-gallon commercial fertilizer containing nitrogen. 

291 



292 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

corn. These needs of corn seem meager in comparison to the 
total amount of the elements found in soil. But we should 
remember that only a small amount of the plant foods in a soil 
are available. Hopkins states that we can assume for a rough 
estimation that the equivalent of two per cent of the nitrogen, 
one per cent of the phosphorus, and one-fourth of one per 
cent of the total potassium contained in the surface soil can 
be made available during one season by practical methods of 
farming. 

If this be true, then to produce 65 bushels of corn there must 
be at least 4250 pounds of nitrogen, 1400 pounds of phosphorus, 
and 31,600 pounds of potassium, in the seed bed available to the 
growing plants. From the table given above on the composition 
of different kinds of soils, and the figures just given on the amount 
of foods required to produce 65 bushels of corn per acre, it will be 
readily seen that low yields may be frequently due to the lack 
of one or more of the elements, — nitrogen, phosphorus, or potas- 
sium. 

Chemical analysis of soils shows the total plant foods in soils. 
It does not show, however, how much of the elements are available 
to growing plants. Many plant foods are locked up in insoluble 
forms and are given up slowly to plants. This is fortunate, for 
if the plant foods were soluble, they would be leached away and 
evaporated. 

How Grain Farming Removes Plant Foods. — Every farmer 
knows that if one crop is grown year after year, on the same soil, 
the productivity of the soil is greatly decreased. Even on the 
richest soils, if the same crop is grown for five or ten consecu- 
tive years, the yields are smaller each year. In the " corn belt " 
many fields are unprofitable because they have been constantly 
producing corn. In the Northern States where wheat is grown 
abundantly, the fields are irresponsive, compared to what they 



LOSSES OF PLANT FOODS 293 

were in their virgin condition. In the South where cotton has 
been planted on the same field every year, soil does not produce 
as it formerly did ; and so it is in every section. Where the 
people have grown one crop on the same field from year to 
year, the soil does not respond, is less productive, and often 
unprofitable. 

At the Rothamsted Station, England, an experiment was 
carried on for 32 years with the object of finding out the effects of 
continuous cropping on yields, and of rotation of crops on yields. 
On one field wheat was grown continuously for 32 years. On 
another field 8 crops each of turnips, barley, clover, and wheat 
were grown. The crops were removed from the fields and no 
manures were added, so that the difference in the yields shows the 
relation of rotation of crops to yields. The average yield of 
wheat where it was grown continuously was 1 2 bushels an acre ; 
and where the above rotation was practiced it was 26 bushels an 
acre. The field in which wheat was grown for 32 consecutive 
years produced a total of 384 bushels in that time, and the field 
where eight crops were harvested, one every fourth year, pro- 
duced a total of 208 bushels of wheat. This and other experi- 
ments show that continuous cropping removes plant foods and 
reduces crop yields. 

Surface Washing Decreases Plant Food. — Surface washing 
greatly reduces the resources of the soil. The loss caused by the 
depletion of our forests is small in comparison to the loss caused 
by the erosion, or washing away, of our soils. 

The extent of erosion is affected by (i) slope, (2) heavy rainfall 
over short periods, (3) type of soil, and (4) cultivation and vegeta- 
tion. Steep slopes, when tilled, are subject to severe erosions. 
Heavy rains falling on hillsides do inestimable damage, especially 
if the slope has been plowed, and there is no vegetation growing 
upon it. Soils that are compact and do not permit water to 



294 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



freely percolate through them, are much more liable to erosion 
than are porous soils. 

Soil-washing, or erosion, carries away plant foods and causes 
gullies and a rough contour of the land so that the land becomes 
untillable. Humus, because it is lighter than soil, is carried off 
first ; and the smaller soil particles are carried more easily than 
coarser sand. Since humus is very rich in plant foods, it should 
be protected above everything else. The fine particles of the 
soil contain more plant foods than do the coarse particles, and 
for that reason should not be allowed to wash away. 




Fig. 135. — Showing movement of soils from higher to lower levels 



Soil erosion may be partially prevented by (i) keeping all 
slopes in grass, (2) the addition of organic matter, (3) proper 
methods of cultivation, and (4) drainage. Growing vegetation 
naturally prevents erosion by checking the water flow. Since 
organic matter holds more water than soils do, its addition to 
soils prevents soil erosion. All hillsides when tilled should be 
cultivated along the slopes, never up and down the slopes. A 
tile drain may be used to carry off surplus water on slopes, and 
a ditch along the slope just above the land that is tilled, often 
prevents the water that accumulates higher up the slope from 
washing the tilled soil. (See Exercise i.) 



LOSSES OF PLANT FOODS 295 

Losses of Humus Causes Losses of Plant Foods. — It has been 
rightly said that "humus is the life of the soil." This is true 
for at least two reasons : First, because of its effect upon the soil 
as indicated in a paragraph in a preceding chapter ; and second, 
because of its rich plant food composition. Decaying vegetable 
matter, which is humus, is composed of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen. Since the greatest part of the plant is composed of 
these elements, humus, therefore, adds these elements directly, 
in an available form, to soils. 

Humus is decreased in soils in the following ways : 

1. By continuous cropping, without returning any vegetable 
matter to the soil. 

2. By allowing an abundance of air to come in contact with it. 
If the soil is constantly wet, organic matter accumulates. It is 
for this reason that so much humus may be found in swamps. 
Peat soils are formed as a result of prevailing wet conditions. 
The organic matter is not decomposed, but in dry soils humus is 
decomposed by the air, and the gases, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen, escape. Cultivation aids aeration, and therefore 
hastens the decomposition of organic matter. Dry seasons are 
said to burn out the soil. This is partially true, because or- 
ganic matter decomposes more rapidly. 

3. Humus is wasted when stubble, cornstalks, grass, and straw 
stacks are burned. This is generally bad farm practice, and 
should occur only in rare cases. (See Exercise 2.) 

Loss of the Important Plant Food, Nitrogen. — Nitrogen is 
taken from soils in three ways, (i) by plants, (2) by water leaching 
it away, and (3) by denitrification. Each crop, when it is removed, 
takes with it a definite amount of nitrogen. Again, when or- 
ganic matter decays, it changes to ammonia. From ammonia it 
changes to nitrites, and from nitrites into nitrates. This whole 
process of changing organic matter to nitrates is called nitrifica- 



296 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

tion. Each step in the nitrifying process is caused by specific 
bacteria. 

Denitrification of the nitrates occurs if they are not used by 
plants. Denitrification is just the opposite of nitrification, and 
is an undesirable condition in the soil. The factors that cause 
denitrification are : 

1. A water-saturated soil. 

2. Lack of oxygen in the soil. 

3. A supply of nitrates. 

4. And the presence of denitrifying bacteria. 

Plowed soils left without growing crops are liable to lose a 
great deal of nitrogen. Plowing soils makes plant food available, 
but if these foods, especially the nitrates, are not used by plants, 
they are leached away. It has been found that little nitrogen 
is lost in summer months, but that most of the nitrogen is lost 
during rainy seasons. It has also been found that growing crops 
reduce to a minimum the losses of nitrogen due to leaching. 
Vivian says, " Numerous experiments confirm the observation 
that if fields are covered with growing plants, practically no 
nitrogen is lost in the drainage water, not because the nitrates 
are not formed, but because the plants appropriate them as fast 
as they are produced." ^ This is one reason why green cover 
crops should be grown on lands that are plowed in the fall. (See 
Exercise 3.) 

Summary. — The supply of plant foods, though varying in 
different soils, is rather large. Fortunately plant foods become 
soluble very slowly. If this were not the case, soils would soon 
be depleted of the elements essential to plant growth. Plant 
foods are decreased by continuously cropping the soil and remov- 
ing the crops, by soil erosion or washing, by decreasing the humus 
content of soils, and by the losses of nitrogen due to leaching and 
^ Vivian : First Principles of Soil Fertility. 



LOSSES OF PLANT FOODS 297 

denitrification. All of these losses can be controlled to a con- 
siderable extent by proper methods of farm practice. (See 
Exercise 4.) 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study the Fertility of Soils that Have Been Washed, and Soils that 
Have Not Been Washed. — Get soils from the top or slope of a hillside 
where the soil has been exposed to severe erosions, and a soil from the 
foot of a hillside where there was no soil erosion. 

a. Study each soil as to color, texture, structure, composition, amount 
of organic matter, etc. 

b. Fill one-half gallon jar with each soU. Plant wheat seeds in each, and 
grow plants for six or eight weeks. 

Write your findings. 

2. To Study at what Stage of Decomposition of Organic Matter are Its 
Plant Foods Most Available. — Fill two one-gallon jars almost full of medium 
fine sand. Add to one jar a quart of well-rotted organic matter (manure). 
To the other jar add a quart of similar vegetable matter except that the 
vegetable matter must not be in a well-decomposed condition. Plant wheat 
seeds in each, and record results about eight or ten weeks later. 

3. To Study the Effect of Nitrogen upon the Growth of Wheat Plants. — 
Use two small plots near the schoolhouse ; ten feet by ten feet will do. The 
soil should be prepared as farmers prepare soils for wheat sowing. Add to 
one plot a half gallon of fertilizer containing nitrogen. Add nothing to the 
other plot. Sow each to wheat. Write your observations every two weeks 
for at least three months. 

4. Write an essay on " Losses of Plant Foods from the Soil." 



CHAPTER XXI 
IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS 

Introduction. — Yields are affected by the kind of seed planted, 
by the amount of moisture, by the amount of heat and light, and 
by the available plant foods. The four points named have been 
discussed, and we have now to learn how to improve the soils as a 
home for plants. 

The improvement of soils is a physical or a chemical process, 
or both. When the physical character of the soil is improved, 
it is usually accompanied and followed by important chemical 
changes. 

Conditions of Soils Causing Low Crop Yields. — Soils are often 
in poor physical condition for crop growth. Soils that pack easily 
and become hard after every rain are in poor physical condition. 
Many clay soils become so hard and compact that plants are 
unable to secure sufficient plant foods from them. Although 
clay soils chemically are generally rich soils as far as the mineral 
elements are concerned, they are quite often deficient in organic 
matter and nitrogen. 

As long as a soil is compact and hard, it will not respond to the 
best advantage. It will not liberate any of its plant food rapidly 
enough for the maximum crop production. The improvement of 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Exer- 
cises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Several samples of soils brought from the garden and fields ; blue litmus 
paper (may be had at drug stores) ; lime ; two one-gallon buckets or earthen 
jars ; salt and water. 

298 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS 299 

its physical condition is the problem for the farmer. Drainage 
and proper methods of cultivation aid somewhat in improving 
the physical condition, but the addition of organic matter helps 
more in making the soil pervious and friable. Liming compact 
soils also helps in making them more easily tillable. Lime loosens 
the soil and helps greatly in improving its physical condition. 
(See Exercise i.) 

Improving Soils by Correcting Acidity. — Soil acidity hinders 
the growth of some plants. Red clover, alfalfa, and beets will 




Fig. 136. — The lime spread 



not thrive in an acid soil. White clover, red top, potatoes, and 
oats do fairly well in a soil that is slightly acid. 

To test soils for acidity insert a small piece of blue litmus 
paper into a small opening made with a knife or a stick in the 
soil, and press the moist soil against the paper. Allow paper 
to remain in contact with the soil for about ten minutes. If the 
soil is acid, the blue litmus paper will turn red. 

Acidity of soils may be corrected by the addition of lime. 
Unslaked lime should not be applied to soil, because it will burn 
the organic matter. Ground limestone is the best form in which 
to apply lime to soils. However, water-slaked lime may be 
used. A good method of applying lime is indicated in Fig. 136. 



300 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

It should be remembered that lime does not add any plant 
foods to the soil, but merely makes more plant foods available. 
It has been said that liming soils makes the father rich, but the 
son poor. This is true according to the best authorities, es- 
pecially if lime is used alone. But if organic matter is added 
along with lime, the caustic effects of the lime will be largely 
overcome. From two thousand to six thousand pounds of 
ground limestone are usually applied to an acre. (See Exercises 
2 and 3.) 

Improving Soils by Correcting Alkalinity. — Alkali soils are 
found in arid regions. Rain water carries a small amount of 
salts. In arid regions these salts are deposited in the soil, be- 
cause not enough water falls to drain or leach out the salts, and 
because the water evaporates and leaves the salts in the soil. 
Salt lakes are formed in this way. Alkali soils may be made 
neutral by flooding the soil. This carries the salts out. Plants 
are unable to get any plant foods from alkah soils because in 
the presence of salts osmotic pressure of the cell sap is outward. 
(See Exercise 4.) 

Improving Soils by the Use of Legume Crops. — Leguminous 
crops, such as clovers, alfalfa, soybeans, and cowpeas, have both 
a physical and a chemical effect upon the soil. The deep penetrat. 
ing roots of the legumes loosen the soil and make it more porous- 
Even the subsoil is opened by the deep-growing legume roots. 
Every farmer knows that a soil upon which a legume has been 
growing is in a good physical condition. Often legumes are 
grown on a soil simply to prepare the soil for some other crop. 
(Study Fig. 137.) 

The chemical effect of growing legumes is not so great as is the 
physical effect. Growing legumes improves the chemical com- 
position of the soil. From 40 to 150 pounds of nitrogen may be 
stored in the legumes grown on an acre. This includes the nitro- 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS 



301 



gen stored in the tops and the roots. More than two-thirds of 
the nitrogen is stored in the tops. The amount of nitrogen 
stored in the tops and roots of certain legumes has been found to 
be:' 



Crop 


Weight of Crop 
Air Dry 


Nitrogen Stored 
IN Tops 


Nitrogen Stored 
in Roots 


Red clover . . 
Alfalfa . . . 
Cowpeas . . . 
Soybeans 


4021 

4247 
4028 

7546 


69.8 lb. 

54.8 lb. 

65.2 lb. 
130.9 lb. 


33.2 lb. 
40.4 lb. 

4-3 lb. 

9.3 lb. 



From this table you will see that most of the nitrogen is stored 
in the leaves and about one-third in the roots. 

If the soil is low in nitrogen content, the legumes store more 
nitrogen than if the soil has a high nitrogen content. It has been 
demonstrated by experiment that if the soil is rich in nitrogen, 
legumes draw upon the nitrogen in the soil first, and take very 
little nitrogen from the soil air. In fact, the nodules in which the 
bacteria do the work of gathering and storing nitrogen on the 
roots of legumes, frequently do not form when the plants are 
growing in a soil rich in nitrogen. 

In some soils, the bacteria of a particular legume may not be 
present. The farmer cannot always tell, and therefore finds 
it practical to inoculate the soil with the specific bacteria. This 
may be done by sowing with the seed two hundred to three 
hundred pounds of soil from a field where the crop has been grow- 
ing successfully. The bacteria growing on alfalfa and sweet 
clover may be used one upon the other for inoculation. The 
fixation of nitrogen on other legumes is done in each particular 
crop by a different species of bacteria, but the bacteria living 

1 Delaware Experiment Station. 



302 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



on the roots of soybeans, and storing nitrogen, will not live and 
store nitrogen on the roots of white clover. The same is true 

of the other legumes, except 
of sweet clover and alfalfa, 
because a different species of 
bacteria causes the fixation of 
nitrogen on each particular 
crop. 

Improving Soils by Rotation 
of Crops. — A mere rotation of 
crops will not of itself add fer- 
tility to the soil. But a rota- 
tion conserves the soil fertility 
and, when practiced in a proper 
manner, aids greatly in keeping 
the soil in good condition. 
There are a few points which 
should be kept in mind in plan- 
ning a system of rotation. 
These are : 

1 . A cultivated crop helps to 
make plant food available by 
keeping out noxious weeds and 
improving the physical condi- 
tion of the soil. 

2. A legume crop should be 




Fig. 137. — The nodules on the roots of 
the above alfalfa plant improved the chem- 
ical composition of soil ; the deep penetrat- 
ing root improved its physical condition. 



included in the rotation, because 
its deep-growing roots loosen the soil and make it porous and 
because it adds nitrogen to the soil. 

3. A pasture or meadow crop should be included in the rotation, 
because the decaying roots store a large amount of humus in the 
soil. One reason why virgin soils are so rich is that large amounts 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS 



303 



of humus are left in the soil by the decay of roots. It has been 
found that the amount of organic matter left on the top 6 
inches by the roots of timothy and redtop is 7606 pounds per 
acre. Some have thought that the stems and the leaves fur- 
nished the organic matter of soils, but it has been proven that 
the decaying roots of grasses furnish the greatest amount. 

4. Different crops need different plant foods. Some crops 
draw more heavily upon one element than do others, and for that 
reason rotation of crops should be practiced. For illustration, a 
corn crop removes a great deal of nitrogen while a legume re- 
stores it. This provides for a balanced removal of plant foods. 

Suggested Crop Rotations for 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 Year Periods 



First year 

Second year 
Third year 
Fourth year 
Fifth year 
Sixth year 
Seventh year 



Two Year 
Rotation 



Corn or 
wheat 
Soybeans 



Three Year 
Rotation 



Corn and 
soybeans 
Oats 
Clover 



Four Year 
Rotation 



Corn 

Oats 

Wheat 
Soybeans 



Five Year 
Rotation 



Corn 

Corn 
Oats 
Clover 
Soybeans 



Six Year 
Rotation 



Corn 

Corn 

Oats 

Clover 

Wheat 

Clover 



Seven Year 
Rotation 



Corn 

Oats 

Soybeans 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Wheat 



Crop rotations vary greatly in different states and countries. 
Each of the rotations suggested in the table may be considered 
from the following standpoints : i. Improvement of soil. 2. Dis- 
tribution of labor. 3. Keeping down weeds and supplying 
humus to the soil. 

The effect of crop rotations may be gathered from the following 
data : ^ 

^ Quoted from Circular No. g6 of the Illinois Station. 



304 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Rotation Yield of Corn 

Corn and oats for twenty-eight years 36 bu. per acre 

Corn, oats, and clover, twenty-eight years 59 bu. per acre 

Pasture (18 yr.), corn, oats, and clover, ten years ... 74 bu. per acre 

This experiment along with others of a similar nature empha- 
sizes the point that crop rotations conserve the fertility of the soil. 
Improving Soils by Tillage. — Tillage does not add plant foods 
to the soil, but it does put the soil in such condition that plants 
can take the food in it. The plant foods are made available 

(i) by improving the 
physical condition of 
the soil, and (2) by 
making more plant 
foods available from a 
chemical standpoint. 
Crops will not grow 
in a soil that has not 
been plowed and thor- 
oughly prepared as a 
seed bed. Soils are 
plowed and seed beds 
are prepared so that the growing plant will have a maximum 
amount of feeding surface. If plants are growing in a cloddy 
soil, there is Kttle soil surface exposed to the roots of the plant. 
But if the clods are crushed, and disintegrated into the finest 
particles, then from a physical standpoint we have the best con- 
ditions for plant growth. One reason, then, why soil is tilled is 
to improve the tilth, friability, and physical nature of the soil, and 
to increase the soil surface exposed to the growing roots of plants, 
and to make the plant foods available to the growing plant. 

Tillage hastens chemical activity in soil and makes more 
plant foods available. Tillage loosens the soil and causes better 




Fig. 138. — Discing the soil improves its physical con- 
dition, and thereby makes more plant food available to 
the plant. 



IMPROVEMENT OF SOILS 



305 



aeration. An improvement of aeration permits more oxygen 
to enter the soil, and this hastens the processes which make plant 
foods available. An average amount of oxygen in the soil aids 
in putrefaction and decay, and provides a condition necessary 
to the development of bacterial organisms necessary for trans- 
forming vegetable matter into available plant foods. The 
processes due to bacterial organisms are accompanied by chemical 
changes. Air is essential to these processes. 

Improving Soils by Plowing under Green Manure Plants. — 
Green manure crops are grown and plowed under to enrich 
the soil. Any crop 
plowed under adds 
organic matter to the 
soil, and causes more 
plant foods to be set 
free. Green manure 
crops are of two 
classes : 

1 . Cover crops such 
as rye and wheat 
sown in the autumn 
and left on the soil 
through the winter to protect the land, and plowed under in the 
spring. 

2. The legume crops, which are grown in summer and plowed 
under in the autumn. 

Even if the legume hay is removed, the soil will be somewhat 
improved. However, the main value of a green manure crop 
comes from the organic matter that is added to the soil. 

Summary. — Low yields are due often to soil conditions. 
Soils that are in poor physical condition seldom produce good 
crops, because they do not liberate plant foods fast enough. 







Fig. 139. ^Turning under a green manure crop improves 
the soil physically and chemically. 



3o6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The physical condition of soil is improved by tillage, by addition 
of organic matter, by growing legumes, and by proper rotation 
of crops. Good physical condition of soils is favorable to chemi- 
cal processes which make plant foods available. An acid soil is 
made neutral or sweet by the addition of lime, but hme should 
not be depended upon alone as an improver of soils. Organic 
matter should be added also. In attempting improvements of 
the soil, both the physical character and chemical nature of the 
soil should be kept in mind. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Essay on Low Yields. — Write a two hundred word essay, giving the 
causes of the low yields of some particular field in your neighborhood. 

2. To Test Soils for Acidity. — Have pupils bring several samples of soils. 
SoUs from garden and fields are preferred. Test each soil for acidity as 
directed in a preceding paragraph. Test some soils from fields that have 
grown corn for several years. Write your findings. 

3. Correcting Acidity in Soils by Adding Lime. — To a half pint of some 
acid soU add a tablespoonful of Hme. Add water and mix the two thor- 
oughly. Test for acidity just as you did in Exercise 2. Write your find- 
ings. How may soil acidity be corrected? 

4. To Study the Relation of an Alkali Soil to Plant Growth. — In each 
of two gallon buckets or jars grow some plants. Probably some of the plants 
used in previous exercises may be employed for this exercise. Make a 
saturated solution of a quart of water and salt. Pour this on the soil in 
which one of the plants is growing. Repeat this for a few days; observe 
results. How do you account for the results? Record. 



CHAPTER XXII 
BARNYARD MANURE 

Importance. — The value of farm manures has not been fully 
realized in the United States. Barnyard manures are the 
greatest means of maintaining the fertility of soils. The value 
of the manures produced annually in the United States is more 
than $2,000,000,000.^ Compare this with the value of our three 
important crops : 



MANURE $2,000,000,000 

CORN 1,755,859,000 

WHEAT 930,302,000 

OATS 555,569,000 



Graph 10. The value of manure production compared with the value of important crops. 

The value of manure is equal to the poultry, dairy, swine, and 
sheep products combined. We see how important it is, then, 
to guard against the losses which may come to this important 
source of plant food. (See Exercise i.) 

Factors Affecting the Value of Manure. — Aside from losses 
of manures due to exposure, which will be discussed in a later 
paragraph, most of the factors affecting the value of manures are : 

1. Kind of feed. 3. Age of animal. 

2. Kind of animal. 4. Kind and amount of litter used. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Exer- 
cises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Manure water, secured by soaking manure in water for 24 hours or 
longer ; two one-quart tin cans. 

1 Data for 1915. 
307 



3o8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



It is evident that when feeds are fed that are low in food value, 
the manure produced will have a low fertilizing value. On the 
other hand, if feeds are fed that are highly nutritious, the manure 
produced will contain a high fertilizing value. To illustrate, if 
a steer is fed wheat straw alone, the manure voided has little 
value, but if good clover hay is fed, the manure voided has much 
greater value as a fertilizer. To bring out this point a little 
further, let us study the figures following taken from Henry and 
Morrison's Feeds and Feeding : 



Fertility Value per Ton and Manurial Value of a Ton of Feeding 

Stuffs 



Feed 


Nitrogen 
Lb. 


Phosphoric 
Acid 
Lb. 


Potash in 
2000 Lb. 


Fertility 
Value 


Manurial 
Value 


Cottonseed meal, choice . 
Wheat bran .... 

Oat straw 

Corn silage 


141. 2 

51.2 

II.6 

. 6.8 


57-4 

59-0 

4.2 

3-2 


36.2 

32.4 
30.0 

8.8 


^29. 63 

13-49 
3-78 
I.81 


^23. 70 

10.79 

3.02 

1-45 



The table shows the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and the potash 
content in 2000 pounds of each feed. The fertility value is 
found by multiplying the number of pounds of nitrogen by 18 ; 
the number of pounds of phosphoric acid and potash each by 
4i cents. Of course, the prices of the elements named vary, but 
are usually about 18 cents per pound for nitrogen and 4^ cents 
per pound for each of the other two named. The manurial value 
is based upon the general fact that 80 per cent of the fer- 
tilizing constituents of the feeds fed is recovered in the manure. 
The manurial value of a ton of cottonseed meal is $23.70, while 
the manurial value of a ton of corn silage is $1.42. From this it 



BARNYARD MANURE 



309 



will be evident that the kind of feed fed greatly affects the value 
of the manurial product. 

The second factor that affects the value of manure is the kind 
of animal from which the manure is derived. 



Composition of One Ton of Average Manure from Farm Animals ^ 





Water 


Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 


Potash 


Value 




Per Cent 


Pounds 


Acm 


Pounds 


Dollars 


Sheep manure .... 


68 


19 


7 


20 


M-74 


Horse manure .... 


78 


14 


5 


II 


3-30 


Cow manure .... 


86 


12 


3 


9 


2.74 


Pig manure .... 


87 


10 


7 


8 


2.52 


Chicken manure . . . 


88 


32 


2,2 


16 


7.92 



Sheep and horse manure have a smaller water content and a 
higher nitrogen and potash content than the other manures 
named. This is the reason for their higher value. Sheep and 
horse manures are known as " hot manures," because they have 
great capacity for fermentation. Poultry manure has the 
highest fertilizing value. 

Again, the age of an animal influences the manurial value. 
Younger animals secure more of the food nutrients of a feed than 
do old animals. A young animal uses food for growth. An 
old animal simply uses food for maintenance. For this reason 
a young animal gets more food out of the feed. A young calf 
digests fully 50 per cent of the elements of its food, but an old 
cow digests less than 20 per cent of her food. It is for this 
reason that manure from older animals has more fertilizing 
material than that from young animals. 

And finally the kind of litter used affects the value of manure. 



1 Henry and Morrison : Feeds and Feeding. 



3IO 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Such materials as sawdust and wood shavings, where used as 
Htter, add httle, if any, fertiHty to manures. Wheat and oat 
straw add a great deal to the value of manure, and where alfalfa 
and clover hay is mixed with the bedding, the manure is greatly 
enriched. 

Amount of Manure from Different Animals and Its Value for 
a Year. — It has already been seen that the amount and value 
of manure depends upon the animal producing it. Swine eat 
about twice as much as does a horse and produce almost twice 
as much manure per one thousand pounds hve weight. Poultry 
eat more than twice as much as cattle in proportion to the weight, 
and the manure voided is almost twice as great in value. The fol- 
lowing table shows the amounts and values of manures produced 
by different farm animals : 

Amount of Manure Produced per One Thousand Pounds Live Weight 





Excrement 
PER Year 


Manure 

WITH 

Bedding 
PER Year 


Nitrogen 
PER Year 


Phosphoric 

Acid per 

Year 


Potash 
PER Year 


Cost of Ele- 
ments IF 

Purchased in 
Commercial 
Fertilizers 




Tons 


Tons 


Lb. 


Lb. 


Lb. 




Horse . . 


8.9 


12. 1 


153 


81 


ISO 


^33-72 


Cow . . . 


13-5 


14.6 


137 


92 


140 


31.20 


Sheep . . 


6.2 


9.6 


175 


88 


133 


36.84 


Calf . . . 


12.4 


14.8 


150 


105 


102 


32.28 


Pig . . . 


15-3 


18.0 


331 


158 


130 


64.48 


Fowls 


4-3 


4-3 


293 


119 


72 


54-52 



It is shown that a cow weighing one thousand pounds voids 
13.5 tons of manure per year. This manure contains 137 pounds 
of nitrogen, 92 pounds of phosphoric acid, and 140 pounds of 
potash. The values of the manures are figured upon the basis of 
nitrogen being worth 16 cents per pound and the phosphoric 



BARNYARD MANURE 311 

acid and potash being worth 4 cents each per pound. Eckles 
states, " A dairy cow weighing 1000 pounds voids about 12 tons 
of solid and hquid manure in a year, worth, on the basis of the 
elements of fertihty contained, about $30 in round figures." 

Another method of figuring the value of manure is to multiply 
the additional number of bushels of crop produced by the current 




Cornell Station. 

20 tons manure 10 tons manure Nothing 

7420 lb. hay per acre 4350 lb. hay per acre 2230 lb. hay per acre 

Fig. 140. — Timothy hay responds to barnyard manure. 

price per bushel of the article produced. That is to say, if a ton 
of manure will increase the corn yield one hundred pounds and 
corn is worth 74 cents per bushel or li cents per pound, the value 
of the additional corn is $1.50. This may be considered the 
value of the manure for the first year. Of course the effects of 
manure upon the crops may be well seen for several years. Ex- 
periments have shown that for 10 years the average increase of 
crops produced by one ton of manure was valued at $3.44- If 
50 cents per ton is allowed as a cost of applying the manure to 
the field, there still remains a handsome profit as a result of the 
application. (See Exercise 2.) 



312 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Relative Value of Liquid and Solid Manure. — The composi- 
tion of the liquid and solid parts of manure is quite different. 
The liquid part contains much more nitrogen than does the 
solid part, and the solid part contains the greater part of the 
phosphoric acid, and a very small part of the potassium. 
The relative composition of the solid and liquid portions is as 
follows : 



TT 1 Liquid manure 
Horse 1 c i-j 

I bond manure . 

^ I Liquid manure 

Cow 1 (^ ?. , 

I Solid manure . 



Nitrogen 


Phosphoric 
Acid 


Potash 


Per Cent 

1-52 
0.56 
1.05 
0.44 


Per Cent 
0.0 

0.35 

0.0 

0.12 


Per Cent 
0.92 
O.IO 
1.36 
0.04 



Value per 
Ton 



?7.oo 
2.69 
5-56 
1.92 



Liquid manure is worth about three times as much as solid 
manure. Although the liquid excrement is only about one-third 
as much as the solid portion, its fertilizing value is more than 
equal to that of the solid portion. The liquid manures are often 
lost. -Such bedding as will absorb the liquid portion of the 
manure should be used. Straw and leaves are good absorbers 
and help especially to conserve the nitrogen which is so abundant 
in liquid measure. 

Losses of Manures. — The direct losses of manures are caused 
by leaching and by fermentation. Liquid manures naturally 
leach away unless absorbed by straw and litter applied to bedding. 
Often barns are built in such a place that the liquid portion of 
the manure drains away. If the liquid manure is lost, it is esti- 
mated that about half of the fertilizing elements are lost. 
Again, farmers often throw the manure out of the stables and 
allow it to lie for some time under the eaves of a building. This 



BARNYARD * MANURE 



3^3 



is just like taking paper money out of a bank and throwing it 
out to the rains and the winds. This is illustrated by the fol- 
lowing results of an experiment extending over five months, from 
April to September, to show losses from leaching : ^ 





Value of Manure 
AT Beginning 


Loss 


Loss 


Horse manure .... 
Cow manure 


Per Ton 

?2.8o 
2.29 


Per Ton 

^1.74 

.69 


Per Cent 
62 
30 



From this experiment it is evident that manures lose much in 
a short period when exposed to rains and the weather. A ton 




Fig. 141. — Manure exposed under the eaves where it loses 30 to 60 per cent of its value. 

of horse manure exposed for five months lost $1.74 worth of its 
fertility, and a ton of cow manure lost 69 cents' worth of its 
fertility. The loss from twenty tons of manure so exposed is 
greater than the average profits produced under average condi- 



^ Data from Cornell University, 1890. 



314 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




tions in the United States, from an acre of corn. Every farmer 
should save the losses of manures from leaching. 

The other cause for losses 
in manures is fermentation. 
Piled manures, or even ma- 
nures left in a stable, become 
hot and ferment. The odor 
about horse stables is due to 
the fact that fermentations 
are going on ; the gas which 

Fig. 142. — An expensive way to apply ma- we Smell is ammonia. This 
nure. Thrown in piles and then spread. . , . , , , 

ammonia contams the ele- 
ment nitrogen, and indicates that the manure is losing this 
valuable fertilizing constitu- 
ent. It has been proved by 
experimentation that from 
30 to 60 per cent of the 
nitrogen in a manure may be 
lost by fermentation. When 
a manure becomes hot be- 
cause of processes of fermen- 
tation, its value is rapidly 
decreased. (See Exercise 3.) 
Care of Manure. — To get 
the best results out of ma- 
nure it should be scattered 
over the land as soon as 
produced. It should not be 
heaped in piles, and later scat- 
tered, but should be spread 
evenly over the soil when it is applied. Piling manures is an 
expensive way of applying them for two reasons : 




Fig. 143. — An expensive way of applying 
manure. This manure was pitched out of the 
barn on to a pile, pitched from the pile on to a 
wagon, pitched from a wagon to the ground, 
and pitched around in the field to spread it 
— handled four times. 



BARNYARD MANURE 



315 







FiG. 144. — Spreading manure directlj' from 
the wagon, a better method than that shown 
by Figs. 142 and 143. 



1. It means an additional handling of the manure. 

2. Its losses from leaching and fermentation are greater where 
manure is piled. 

Spreading manure directly by hand or with a manure spreader 
is the most economical method of handling it. Often, however, 
conditions are such that ma- 
nure cannot be hauled directly 
into the field or pasture on 
account of growing crops, soils 
being too wet, demands on 
labor, or weather conditions. 
It is for these reasons that 
every farmer should provide 
some protection for the manure. Sheds with a concrete floor 
and concrete walls three or four feet high, and well covered, aid 
greatly in keeping the fertility contained in manure. Manures 
stored in sheds should be kept moist and compact. A compact, 
moist heap of manure prevents hot fermentations. The heating 

of manures is due to bacteria 
which require oxygen for 
their existence. Manure 
properly cared for is an im- 
portant financial asset to the 
farmer, as well as to all 
consumers of food and food 
products. 

Summary. — The value of 
manure is not properly appre- 
ciated by the people of the 
United States. Its value is more than that derived from the 
corn crop. The value of the manure voided by animals weigh- 
ing one thousand pounds is about $30 per year. Generally 




Fig. 145. — Spreading manure with a ma- 
nure spreader. This manure was pitched from 
the stable to the spreader — handled once only. 



3i6 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



speaking the liquid excrement is equal in value to the solid ex- 
crement. The most economical method of handling manure is 
to distribute it evenly over the land as soon as it is produced. 
The manure spreader is an indispensable implement on farms 
where a good deal of stock is kept. If manures cannot be 
spread immediately after production, they should be stored 
in water-tight sheds, and kept compact and moist, in order to 
protect them from losses due to leaching and fermentations. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Approximate the Value of Manure Produced on Several Farms. — 
Have pupils estimate the number of tons of manure produced on some farm. 
The manure contains about fourteen pounds of nitrogen, six pounds of 
phosphoric acid, and twelve pounds of potash per ton. The prices of the 
three elements as fertilizers may be had from the agricultural chemist of 
your agricultural college. For the purpose of this exercise you may allow 
nitrogen to be worth i8 cents a pound, and phosphoric acid and potash each 
to be worth 4I cents a pound. 

2. To Figure the Amount and Value of Manure Produced by the Animals 
on Your Home Farm. — (If you have no animals, figure the amount and 
value of the manure produced by twenty cows and four horses, supposing 
that each animal weighs one thousand pounds.) Fill an outline as follows 
and incorporate it into your notebook. 

Amount and Value of Manure Produced 



Kind of Animal and No. 



No. OF Tons Pro- 
duced PER Year 



Value per Ton 



Value of Manure 



3. To Show that Soils Absorb the Elements of Manures when they are 
Scattered over the Soil. — Let manure soak in water for about twenty-four 



BARNYARD MANURE 317 

hours. A quart cup of water with a small amount of manure will provide 
the manure water desired. Make holes in another quart can, and fill it 
almost fuU with soil. Now take some of the manure water, and pour it on 
the soil, and let it percolate through the soil. Catch some of the water 
percolating through in a glass tumbler. Compare the color of the water 
that passes through the soil with the manure water. Write your findings. 
What conclusions from the experiment may you draw regarding the ab- 
sorbent power of soil ? What is your opinion regarding the check on leach- 
ing of manure when the manure is spread over the land? 



CHAPTER XXIII 

COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 

Need for Fertilizers. — All soils are not equally supplied with 
the elements of plant growth in the proportion which will produce 
crops to the best advantage. We studied in preceding chap- 
ters that the chemical make-up of soils depends upon their source 
of formation. Soils having a foundation of sandstone are differ- 
ent from soils built upon limestone mixed with some organic 
matter and from soils made almost wholly from vegetable mat- 
ter, such as peaty soils. To quote the table again, we have : 

Amount of Plant Food per Surface Foot 



KI^fD OF Soil 


Nitrogen, Lb. per 
Acre 


Phosphorus, Lb. 
PER Acre 


Potash, Lb. per 
Acre 


Peat 

Sand 

Clay 


11,865 
1,675 
3,250 


550 

620 

5,600 


1,697 
39,750 
12,600 



A peaty soil generally contains nitrogen, but is usually deficient 
in phosphorus and potash. Sandy soils generally need nitrogen 
and phosphorus, and clay soils need nitrogen, phosphorus, and 
potash. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Samples of commercial fertilizers secured from a local dealer, from the 
packing houses or fertilizer dealers ; six one-gallon jars or buckets ; blue 
and red litmus paper. 

318 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



319 



Stock and vegetable products are constantly being shipped to 
the cities, and the amount of fertility thus removed from the 
farm must be replaced by fertilizers. 

Fertilizing Constituents in Two Thousand Poxjnds 



• 


Nitrogen, 
Removed 


Phosphoric Acid, 
Removed 


Potash, Removed 


Dent corn 

Wheat 

Oats 

Fat ox 

Fat pig 

Milk 


Pounds 

32.4 
39-6 
39-6 
46.6 

35-4 
11.6 


Pounds 

13-8 
17.2 
16.2 
31.0 
13.0 
3-8 


Pounds 

8.0 

10.6 

10.2 

II. 2 
2.8 

3-4 



For this reason we go to the packing houses for the by-products 
obtainable from otherwise waste products of the slaughter of 
animals and turn them back to the soil, and so maintain the soil 
fertility. Mines and factories also supply the three essential 
chemicals for plant growth, — nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash. 

Present Use of Fertilizers in the United States. — It has been 
found that 28.7 per cent of all the farms of the United States 
purchased commercial fertilizers.^ The expenditure per farm 
was $63. The New England States, the Middle Atlantic, and 
the Southern States are the heaviest purchasers of fertilizers. 
However, much commercial fertilizer is being used in the North 
Central States, and there seems to be an increasing demand for its 
use. The amounts expended in 1899 and 1909 were $53,430,000 
and $114,882,000, respectively. The amount expended in the 
North and South Central States for commercial fertilizers in 1909 
was $12,369,000. At the present time its use is still greater. 
' Census Report, 19 10. 



320 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



x^l'^O'^^^^? 



Kind of Commercial Fertilizers. — There are three elements 
from which fertilizers are named. These elements are nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and potash ; and we have nitrogenous, phosphatic, 
and potassium fertilizers. Usually each fertilizer contains all 

three elements mentioned. 
The source and composi- 
tion of different kinds will 
be briefly discussed. (See 
Exercise i.) 

Nitrogenous Fertilizers. 
— Besides the nitrogen 
added to the soil by legu- 
minous crops and barnyard 
manures, there are two 
sources from which the nitrogenous fertilizers are suppHed, — 
the slaughter houses and mines. The slaughter houses provide 
dried blood, tankage, and bone meal. These have about the 
following fertilizing constituents in them per ton : 







No nitrogen. 
Fig. 146 



IS'itrogen added. 



The efifect of top dressing grass with 
sodium nitrate. 





Nitrogen 


Phosphorus 


Potash 


Dried blood 

Tankage 

Steamed bone meal . . 


Pounds 
260-280 
80-240 
20-30 


Pounds 
10-20 
30-120 
560-600 


Pounds 



Since these fertilizers contain much nitrogen, they are expen- 
sive. Sodium nitrate, or Chili saltpeter, which contains nitrogen, 
is mined in Chili and Peru. It contains from 15 to 16 per cent of 
nitrogen. As it is very soluble, it should be applied only where 
it will be used immediately by plants. 

Phosphate Fertilizers. — The phosphate fertilizers are derived 
from dissolved phosphate rock, bone meal, and tankage. In 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 321 

some parts of the United States there are natural deposits of rocks 
that contain phosphates, in combination with Ume. These rocks 
are ground and treated with sulphuric acid, which unites with the 
hme and makes the unsoluble phosphorus soluble, a form in which 
it is available to plants. The product is called acid phosphate ; 
and contains about 15 to 20 per cent of soluble phosphorus. 

Bone meals contain both nitrogen and phosphorus. They 
are sold either as raw bone meal or steamed bone. Raw bone 
meal is freshly ground bone. The ground bone is then steamed. 



1 


UtSf 


^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H 


>— ^-..'-'^^^H 






■^ilillH^H 



Courksy of the Agricultural Extension- Department. Purdue University. 

21.3 bu. per acre. 4.2 bu. per acre. 22.6 bu. per acre. 

Dried blood, 60 lb. per Not fertilized. Acid phosphate, 200 lb. 

acre. Acid phosphate, per acre. Muriate of 

2CX) lb. per acre. potash, 30 lb. per acre. 

Fig. 147. — Effect of fertilizers on wheat. 

The steaming removes some of the nitrogen and fat from the 
bone. It contains about i per cent of nitrogen and 11 per cent 
of phosphorus. 

Potassium Fertilizers. — The four forms of potassium fer- 
tiUzers most commonly used are potassium chloride, potassium 
sulphate, kainite, and wood ashes. Kainite is a potassium 
fertiHzer mined in Stassfurt, Germany, and is used in the manu- 
facture of most of the potassium fertihzers. The supply of 
kainite at these mines is said to be inexhaustible. Potassium 



32 2 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

chloride is a manufactured product, and contains about 45 to 
50 per cent of potassium. Potassium sulphate is made from 
kainite, and contains about 45 per cent of potassium. This 
form of potassium fertilizer is used for fertilizing potatoes. 
Wood ashes contain from 2 to 8 per cent of potash, which is very 
soluble and leaches away easily. Wood ashes make a valuable 
fertilizer and should be carefully saved. (See Exercise 2.) 

Value of Commercial Fertilizers. — The value of a fertilizer 
depends upon its nitrogen or ammonia, phosphorus, and available 




Courtesy National Fertilizer Association, Chicago. 

Fig. 148. — Analysis of potato crop on farm near Tripoli, Wis. 

Unfertilized acre yield = 3go bu. analyzing 330 bu. marketable, 60 bu. unmarketable. 
Fertilized acre yield =470 bu. analyzing 432 bu. marketable, 38 bu. unmarketable. 

potash content. All other materials in a fertilizer are worth 
little or nothing and are known as " filler.'' In order to mis- 
lead purchasers of fertilizers, meaningless statements are put on 
fertilizer bags. The following is such an illustration : 

Guaranteed Analysis (Found on Bags) per Cent 

Nitrogen 82 to i 

Equivalent to ammonia i to 2 

Available phosphoric acid 8 to 10 

Equivalent to available bone phosphate 18 to 22 

Total phosphoric acid 9 to 12 

Equivalent to bone phosphate 25 to 30 

Potash actual 2 to 3 

Equivalent to sulphate of potash 3-5 to 5 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 



323 



All of the above and more statements may be found on bags 
containing fertilizers. When the above is reduced to its correct 
form, it reads as follows : 

Per Cent 

Nitrogen 0.82 

Available phosphorous acid 8 

Available potash 2 

There should be a Federal law compelling fertilizer companies 
to label bags of fertiHzers correctly, and without adding a lot 
of meaningless terms 



^NITROGEN 

Equivalent to 
^ammonia 1t0 2 
^available phosphoric 1 

8 TO 10^ 



82T01^ 

I 



and statements, simply 
printed on sacks to 
mislead the purchaser. 
Price of Commercial 
Fertilizers. — The price 
of fertilizers is based 
upon the nitrogen, 
phosphorus, and pot- 
ash contained in them. 
The prices of these 
elements vary in dif- 
ferent sections of the 
country, and change 
just as the price of 
any other commodity 
changes. Generally 
the price of nitrogen 
ranges from 15 to 20 cents per pound, and the prices of phos- 
phorus and potassium range from 4I to 6 cents per pound each. 
To figure the real money value of a commercial fertilizer, 
multiply the number of pounds of nitrogen by 18 and the 
number of pounds of available phosphorus and potash, each by 



MISLEADING TAGS ^ Iqu'IaLENT TO AVAirABrE 1 

ON FERTILIZER SACKS ^ BONE PHOSPHATE 18 TO 22^ 

^TOTAL PHOSPHORIC ACID 9TD1^ 

^G^UIVALENTTOBONE :| 

I PHOSPHATE 25 TO 30^ y 

I ^POTASH, ACTUAL 2 TO 3'| l\^ 

Equivalent TO SULPHATE -^ 

/y |OF P OTASH 3.5 TO 5^ 

4fHEREALMEANlN6| 

THE REAL meaning/^. o/, 



J ^NITROGEN J <^^ 

''^W^VAILABLE PHOSPHORIC J 
ACID 8| 

fAWAILABLE POTASH 2 



Fig. 149. 



324 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

5, and add the results. The result will be the approximate 
value of the fertilizer. For example : A ton of the above 
fertilizer, which contains 0.82 per cent nitrogen, 8 per cent 
available phosphorus, and 2 per cent available potash, will con- 
tain 16.4 pounds of nitrogen, 160 pounds of phosphorus, and 40 
pounds of potash. Then to find the value of each we have : 

20 X 16.4 = $ 3.28 value of nitrogen 

160 X 5 = 8.00 value of phosphorus 

40 X 5 = 2.00 value of potash 
Total $13.28 

Such fertilizer is worth about $13.28 per ton. It is, of course, 
quite likely that we should allow some additional cost for freight. 
The price of any fertilizer may be figured in a similar manner. 
For the current prices of the elements in fertilizers write your 
state agricultural college. (See Exercise 3.) 

How to Determine What Fertilizer to Use. — There is no very 
definite way of determining what fertilizer to use, because kinds 
of soils, seasons, and different varieties of plants have different 
requirements. The information that one gains from the produc- 
tion of each crop should help in the successful production of the 
next. Information should be asked from the Agricultural Ex- 
periment Station and from the state agricultural experts. It 
has been suggested by some authorities that field plot studies 
be made. This undoubtedly is the best method of determining 
approximately what elements to use. But even if the same 
fertilizer and the same crop are grown, the function of the fer- 
tilizer will be affected to a considerable extent by the season. 
If experiments are tried out with fertilizer, plots i rod wide 
and 8 rods long may be used. Such plots contain one- 
twentieth of an acre. The experiment may be carried out as 
follows : 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 325 



No fertilizer 



15 lb. of nitrogen fertilizer 



15 lb. of nitrogen fertilizer 
15 lb. of phosphoric acid 



15 lb. nitrogen fertilizer 
15 lb. phosphoric acid 
IS lb. potash 



No fertilizer 



15 lb. phosphoric fertilizer 



15 lb. phosphorus 
15 lb. potash 



15 lb. of potash 



150 lb. of lime 



If plants are planted across the plots, much can be discovered 
in one or two seasons about the value of commercial fertilizers 
in the growth of various crops. 

In general it may be said that nitrogen promotes leafiness, 
phosphorus acid and potash help in seed formation. Leguminous 
crops generally respond to phosphoric acid, potash, and Hme. 
Potatoes need an abundance of potassium. Oats, wheat, rye, and 
corn generally need all the elements of a commercial fertilizer. 

Another important point to consider in the use of commercial 
fertilizers is the kind of farming practiced. In trucking, when 
the value of the crop is $100 to $150 per acre, it may be economic 



326 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

to use $io worth of fertilizer, but the same amount of fertilizer 
on an acre of timothy would usually result in loss. 

" It does not pay to put commercial fertilizer on poor land. 
Such land usually needs humus, and must be treated before it 
will pay to use fertilizers. About forty farmers in New York 
have reported trials of nitrate of soda for the production of 
timothy hay. In very few cases has it paid if the field did not 
yield at least li tons when untreated, and in very few cases did 
it fail to pay when the unfertilized area yielded over i^ tons. 
It seems to be very nearly as easy to double a yield of i| tons, 
as to double a yield of one-half ton. In the former case the 
gain will be three times as much as the latter." ^ 

Home Mixing of Fertilizer. — After it has been determined 
what elements are needed, fertilizers can be easily mixed in the 
proper proportions by the farmer. For just as the ingredients 
of a chicken feed are raised in price when mixed, so are also the 
elements that go to make a fertilizer raised when mixed by the 
manufacturer. Oats, corn, and wheat, when mixed, often sell for 
3 to 4 cents a pound, when neither of them is selling for more 
than i^ cents a pound when sold alone. Home mixing also has 
the advantage of enabling the farmer to know what elements 
are in the fertilizer. By knowing this he can more nearly meet 
the requirements of the crop and soil conditions. Home mixing 
of the elements of commercial fertilizers is recommended as being 
good farm practice. 

Commercial Fertilizers Not All-sufficient. — To use com- 
mercial fertilizers exclusively without using barnyard manures, 
green manure crops, and a legume to supply nitrogen to the 
soil, is bad farm practice. To use commercial fertilizers con- 
tinuously without adding organic matter, results in breaking 
down the physical condition of the soil. Commercial fertilizers 

* Warren : Elements of Agriculture. 



COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS 327 

add very little humus to the soil, except the part added by the 
*' filler " in the fertilizer, and that is very little, and of poor 
character. 

And again, if 200 pounds of the commercial fertilizer above 
discussed, containing nitrogen 0.8 per cent, available phosphoric 
acid 8 per cent, and available potash 2 per cent, were added to 
an acre, only 1.6 pounds of nitrogen, 16 pounds of phosphoric 
acid, and 4 pounds of potash would be added to the acre. If 
the surface foot of an acre of clay contains 3250 pounds of nitro- 
gen, 5660 pounds of phosphorus, and 12,600 pounds of potash, 
then the addition of 200 pounds of the above fertilizer to an 
acre of clay soil contains such a small percentage of the essential 
ingredients to that already in the soil that it is a negligible 
amount. It is for this reason that we must turn to other farm 
practices than the use of commercial fertilizers, if permanency 
of our agriculture is to be maintained. 

The use of commercial fertilizers should be supplemented with 
all other means of farm practice that will maintain and build up 
the fertility of the soil. Vivian ^ says, " Notwithstanding the 
fact that commercial fertilizers have an important place in rural 
economics, they should not be used to do the work that can be 
better accomplished by properly husbanding the home resources." 

Summary. — There are soil conditions where the use of com- 
mercial fertiUzers will prove economic. The three essentials of a 
commercial fertiHzer are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash, upon 
which the value and price of commercial fertilizers is based. 
The nitrogenous fertilizers are furnished by the packing houses, 
in the form of dried blood, bone meal, and tankage. Nitrate of 
soda is mined in Peru and Chili. Nitrogen is worth about 20 
cents per pound in fertihzers. Phosphoric fertilizers come from 
rocks, treated with sulphuric acid, and bone meal. Potash comes 
^ First Principles of Soil Fertility. 



328 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

mainly from Stassfurt, Germany. Phosphorus and potash are 
worth about 5 cents per pound. Commercial fertilizers should 
be supplemented by manures and good farm practices. (See 
Exercise 4.) 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Study Commercial Fertilizers. — Secure as many samples of 
commercial fertilizers as possible from a local dealer or elsewhere. Study 
these fertilizers (i) as to composition and (2) as to their source, and (3) as 
to their color, texture, and odor. 

2. To Study the Effect of Commercial Fertilizers upon Plant Growth. — 
Fill six one-gallon jars or buckets with black loam. To each one add 8 
grams of the following. To one add a nitrogen fertilizer, containing about 
2 to 3 per cent nitrogen ; to another add a fertilizer containing about 8 per 
cent available phosphoric acid ; to a third add a potassium fertilizer con- 
taining about 3 per cent available phosphorus; to the fourth jar add 8 
grams of lime ; to the fifth add 4 grams each of the above ingredients, and 
to the sixth add nothing. Plant eight to ten grains of wheat in each. 
Maintain conditions for growth for ten or twelve weeks. Record results. 

3. To Figure the Value of Commercial Fertilizers. — From the guaran- 
teed analysis of three or four commercial fertilizers, figure their value, as- 
suming that nitrogen, available phosphoric acid, and available potash are 
worth 20 cents, 6 cents, and 6 cents, respectively. 

Note. — No hasty conclusions should be drawn from this experiment. 
Fairly accurate conclusions can only be made when an experiment is continued 
over several years and crops are grown to maturity under field conditions. 

4. To Test Commercial Fertilizers for Acidity and Alkalinity. — Test 
about six samples of commercial fertilizers for acidity and alkalinity with 
litmus paper. Record results as follows: 



Kind of Fertilizer 



Alkali or Acid 



Note. — If blue litmus paper turns red, it shows acidity. If red htmus 
paper turns blue, it shows alkalinity. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



PLANT PROPAGATION 

Plant Propagation by Seeds. — Formation and Distribution oj 
Seeds. Plants are multiplied most frequently by seeds. A corn 
kernel may reproduce a thousand fold annually, a wheat kernel 
a hundred fold, a pigweed seed two hundred thousand fold, and 



>OHOH,A 




Cm,sk 



PiSTIL 



Stm^kn 




Af^THEH 



ril.AM£/fT 



'Sepal. 

Fig. 150. — Parts of a flower. 

an apple tree may grow millions of seeds annually. Seeds are 
nature's most universal way of propagating higher forms of plant 
life. 

Flowers are essential to seed development. Before a seed can 
begin to grow there must be a flower. A perfect flower has four 
parts : the calyx, the corolla, the stamens, and the pistil. The 
stamens and the pistil are the organs of reproduction. The 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Apple, pear, or cherry flowers ; seeds which have special devices to aid 
their dissemination ; a propagating box ; one-half pound of tallow ; one 
pound of beeswax ; two and one-half pounds of rosin. 

329 



330 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



stamens are the male organs of the flower, and the pistil is the 
female organ. The stamens produce the pollen. When the pollen 
falls upon the top part of the pistil, the flower is said to be pol- 
linated. If proper conditions for growth are present, the pollen 

grain begins to grow and to develop 
a pollen tube. This pollen tube grows 
down the hollow opening in the pistil 
to the ovary. As soon as the pollen 
tube penetrates the ovary of the flower, 
the flower is said to be fertilized. 
Seeds do not form until the ovary 
is fertilized. Extremely wet, rainy 
weather, and very hot, dry weather, 
hinder the processes of pollination 
and fertilization. When corn tassels 
dry up, the pollen grains lose their 
power, fertilization does not take 
place, and the plant produces barren 
ears. 

Imperfect flowers are flowers that 
have only one of the organs which 
make a perfect flower. In imperfect 
flowers, either the stamens or pistils 
are absent. Some varieties of straw- 
berries, cucumbers, and muskmelons 
Imperfect flowers cannot reproduce 
until they are fertilized by the pollen from some other flower. 
Occasionally when strawberries bloom but do not fruit, the 
flowers are imperfect. The gardener should plant by the side 
of barren plants a variety which contains both stamens and 
pistils. (See Exercise i.) 

After seeds are matured they are scattered by nature's methods. 




Courtesy of Ginn b" Co. 

Fig. 151. — Pollen grains produc- 
ing tubes, on stigma of a lily. 
(Much magnified.) 

g, pollen grains; /, pollen tubes; 
p, papillae of stigma; c, canal or 
passage running toward ovary. 

bear imperfect flowers. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



331 



wind, water, animals, birds, and man.^ Every plant must have 
room to grow, and it is for this reason that seeds must be widely 
disseminated. This is nature's way. Seeds fall upon places not 
conducive to their growth, but man provides a well-prepared 
seed bed in which seeds can grow. In nature only the most fit 
survive ; but man often perpetuates both weak and strong seeds 
alike. (See Exercise 2.) 

Three Essential Conditions for Seed Germination. Before 
seeds will grow, there are three factors which must prevail. 
These three factors are proper moisture, proper temperature, 
and free air (oxygen). 

1 . The seeds of the water lily will grow in the presence of free 
water, but corn will not germinate in water. It will sprout best 
in a soil having about 20 to 25 per cent of moisture. Other seeds 
will germinate in semi-arid regions. The amount of moisture 
may be controlled to a considerable extent by tillage and drainage. 

2. Each kind of seed has a minimum, a maximum, and an 
optimum temperature at which it will germinate. The following 
table shows approximately the minimum, the maximum, and 
the optimum at which various seeds will germinate: 

Table Showing Temperature at which Seeds Germinate 



Seed 


Minimum 


Optimum 


Maximum 


Corn .... 


41-51° Fahr. 


99-111° Fahr. 


111-122° Fahr. 


Wheat . . . 


32-41 Fahr. 


77- 88 Fahr. 


88-108 Fahr. 


Oats .... 


32-41 Fahr. 


77- 88 Fahr. 


88- 99 Fahr. 


Beans . . . 


41- Fahr. 


77- 99 Fahr. 


88- 99 Fahr. 


Melon . . . 


60-65 Fahr. 


88- 99 Fahr. 


111-122 Fahr. 


Red clover . . 


88-99 Fahr. 


99-1 1 1 Fahr. 


111-122 Fahr. 



1 Note to the Teacher : The appendages that seeds have which facilitate them in 
their distribution may also be studied at this point. 



332 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Some seeds will germinate at temperature just above freezing ; 
others require warm summer conditions for their best growth. 
Soil temperature may be controlled to some extent by tillage, 
by drainage, by turning under vegetable matter, and by choosing 
the right season. 

3. There must be air present if seeds are to germinate. Seeds 
germinating in the water get air needed for their germination 
from the water, and seeds growing in the soil get soil air needed 
for their growth. Tillage opens the soil and aids air circulation. 
(See Exercise 3.) 

Preparatory Treatments Aiding Seed Germination, i. We 
may aid some seeds in the germination process. Seeds to be 
planted in dry or sandy soils will germinate more rapidly if 
they have been soaked for twelve or eighteen hours. Seeds 
which have a heavy tough seed coat, such as beans and 
peas, tomatoes, turnip and melon seeds, may be profitably 
soaked. 

2. Some seeds may be softened by pouring boiling water over 
them in cool air ; for example, clover seed, alfalfa seed, and black 
locust seeds. Seeds that are two or three years old do not 
need such treatment because the air oxidizes the seed coat. 

3. Freezing will help to spUt the seed coats and thus prepares 
seeds for germination. Nuts, acorns, apple, pear, and cherry 
seeds, may be prepared in this way. The above-named seeds are 
often placed in a box of cinders or sand and exposed to the 
moisture and frosts of the winter season. This is called stratifica- 
tion. The coats are split open and the young plantlets make 
their appearance in 'early spring. Walnuts often do not grow 
until the second summer. This is largely due to a mild winter. 
The seed coats remain unbroken, and the young plant is unable 
to penetrate the covering. 

4. Mechanical treatment may be occasionally employed as a 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



333 



process preparatory to seed germination. Cracking, filing, or 
boring a hole in nuts shortens the germination period. 

Plants Propagated on Their Own Roots. — Many plants and 
practically all vines can be multipHed by layerage. This means 







Fig. 152. 



•By compound layering several new plants are produced from the same shoot. 



partially covering the decumbent shoots and runners with earth, 
under which new roots form. In a year, good plants may be 
thus secured. Dewberries, raspberries, and grapes are readily 
propagated by layers. 

Methods of Layering. i. In 
simple layering, one new plant is 
grown from each shoot. 

2. In compound layering, several 
new plants are produced from the 
same shoot. (Fig. 152.) 

3. Mound layering is practiced in 
the propagation of shrubs, goose- 
berries, and currants. The earth is mounded up about the 
plant in May or June. (Fig. 153.) 




Fig. 153. 



Mound-layering of goose- 
berry. 



334 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




Fig. 154. — Chinese system oi layering. 



4. In the Chinese system of layering, a layering pot is tied 
around a limb, and filled with earth or moss, which is kept wet. 

The limb is bruised where 
it is to grow roots. (Fig. 154.) 

In all systems of layer- 
ing, soft shoots a year old 
are best suited for propaga- 
tion purposes. (See Exer- 
cise 4.) 

5. White clover plants, 
strawberries, and some 
grasses increase by runners. 
A single strawberry plant 
may in one season multiply 
a hundred fold by runners. 

(Fig. I55-) 

Plant Propagation by Cuttings. — Plants may be propagated 
by four kinds of cuttings : tuber cuttings, root cuttings, hard 
and soft wood cuttings, and by leaf cuttings. 

Tuber Cuttings. Tubers are thickened portions of roots or 
underground stems. Irish potatoes are stem tubers, because, 
like stems, they have buds. The fleshy part of the Irish potato 
contains much water and some starch, which furnishes food to 
the bud. Irish potatoes are cut so that each cutting has an 
eye or bud, but sweet potatoes will grow new plants from any 
part of the epidermal covering. 

Root Cuttings. Blackberries and red raspberries may be 
propagated by root cuttings. Roots cut from 2 to 3 inches 
long are placed in a propagating medium ; and if the conditions 
for growth are maintained, they will in due time produce 
plants. 

Hard and Soft Wood Cuttings. Any shrub or vine can be 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



335 



propagated by cuttings, but grapes, currants, and shrubs used 
for ornamental purposes are especially adaptable to this type 
of propagation. Hardwood and softwood cuttings are similar. 
Hardwood cuttings are those made from perennial plants ; soft- 
wood cuttings are made from soft-stemmed plants. Hardwood 




Fig. 155. — Branch of white clover, showing the method ol forming new plants. 



cuttings should be made in the early winter, before there has 
been a hard frost; softwood cuttings may be made at any 
time. One illustration of each of the hardwood and softwood 
cuttings will be given. Grapes are given as an illustration of 
hardwood cuttings. 

Grapes are almost always propagated in the nurseries by 
cuttings. Current year's growth is cut in lengths of from 8 



33^ 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



to 14 inches, and tied in bundles of 50 cuttings each. They 
may be made in November and stored in a cool cellar (about 
40° Fahr.) for the winter, covered with sand or saw- 
dust. They should be planted in the nursery plot 
about the first of April. The ground upon which 
cuttings are to grow should be deeply plowed the 
preceding fall and be fairly fertile. In these nursery 
rows, which should be about 3 feet and 6 inches 
apart, the cuttings may grow for one or two years 
when they should be transplanted into the perma- 
nent vineyard. They should be planted leaning 
toward the south, with two buds beneath the ground 
and one above. When they are properly cared for, 
95 per cent of them will grow. The vineyard rows 
should be about 8 feet apart, and the vines about 6 
feet apart in the rows. 

Softwood cuttings are made from 
geranium, chrysanthemum, carnation, 
fuchsia, coleus, begonia, and similar 
plants. Propagating softwood cuttings 
is carried on in greenhouses, and under 
glass. For softwood cuttings neither 
too hard nor too soft wood should be 
used. Wood that is hard does not de- 
velop roots easily, and wood that is 
soft has not sufficient substance for the develop- 
ment of roots. Softwood cuttings grown in green- 
houses during the winter may be transplanted 
in the spring. 

Technique of Cuttings. Cuttings should be cut on a slant, 
just beneath a bud or leaf. The reasons for this are : 
I. More surface is exposed. 



Fig. 156. 
— Grape 
cutting. 




Fig. 157. — 
One style of 
chrysanthemum 
cutting. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 337 

2. There is supposed to be more food at the nodes than at the 
internodes. 

3. Roots will grow at the nodes more readily. 

Plant cuttings with one or two buds above the ground and 
several below, as illustrated in the above figures. 

One leaf should be left on the cutting for the following 
reasons : 

1. It reduces transpiration. 

2. It encourages circulation of plant foods. 

3. The green part of the leaf aids in the manufacture of plant 
foods. 

Leaf Cuttings. Some plants may be propagated by leaf 
cuttings, the Rex begonia, the Bryophyllum, and the Gloxinia. 
These plants have leaves 
which contain large quanti- 
ties of plant foods, either in 
the body of the leaf, or in 
the ribs of the leaf, upon 
which the leaves draw until 
roots are developed. The ■" '"'"'^'^y///^/^// i 
leaf is able to manufacture 

, , P , . ,. - . Fig. 1 58. — An upright begonia leaf cutting. 

plant food itself from the 

chlorophyll which it contains. When whole leaves are planted, 
the entire leaf stem and a part of the leaf is buried in the sand. 
Occasionally the leaves are laid flat, right side up, and partly 
covered with sand. Cutting or bruising the veins of the leaf 
aids in the development of roots. 

Medkim for Propagating Cuttings. A good medium for propa- 
gating cuttings is a coarse, sharp sand, for the following reasons : 

1. It permits free air circulation. 

2. It permits free water circulation, and may easily be kept 
moist, yet does not become water-logged. 




f 



338 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

3. Its temperature can be kept fairly even, if kept away from 
the direct sunlight. 

4. It is generally free from organic matter, which by decaying 
produces bacterial and fungous diseases. (See Exercise 5.) 

Plant Propagation by Graftage. — Reasons for Graftage. 
Grafted plants produce fruit like that of the parent plant, and 
seedlings produce fruit smaller than the parent plant. Seeds 
are often the result of two parents, and therefore not true to 
type. A hundred seeds from the same tree may produce as 
many different varieties, but a hundred grafts from the same 
tree will produce the same kind of fruit. Plants may be changed 
in size by graftage. Grafting on plants that have smaller root 
systems dwarfs the plant, but grafting on vigorous root systems 
increases the plant's size. If pears are grafted on quince roots, 
the result is a dwarfed plant. Also, conversely, if the quince is 
grafted on the pear, the resulting plant is larger than the quince. 

Grafting may be used to adapt plants to adverse soils. Plums 
thrive best in moist soils ; peaches do best in fairly dry, porous 
soils. These plants may be budded one upon the other, and 
thus the plant may be made to grow in an otherwise adverse soil. 

Grafting is sometimes used to make barren plants fruitful. 
Fruit trees may be top grafted, and thus the stock which has a 
good root system may be used to advantage. A barren tree 
may thus be made fruitful. 

Propagations by Bud Graftage. Bailey^ says : "Budding is the 
operation of applying a single bud bearing Httle or no wood, to 
the surface of the growing wood of the stock. The bud is ap- 
pHed directly to the cambium layer of the stock." Budding is 
employed especially with young plants where the stock is one 
or two years old. The limbs from which the buds are to be 
used, are taken from the current year's growth. Budding may 

' Nursery Book. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



339 



be done about June, or as soon as the bark slips or peels easily. 
A T-shaped incision is made in the stock about 2 or 3 inches 
above the surface of the ground. The bud is cut and inserted 
into the incision, and tied with a soft string or raffia. After ten 





Chip budding. H-budding. Flute budding. 

Fig. 159. — Three kinds of budding. 

or fourteen days it should be examined. If it is hving, it will 
be green and show signs of growth. The string may then be 
cut. The following spring the main trunk of the stock should 
be cut off about one-third or one-half of an inch above the 
growing bud, which will then grow rapidly, for all the growing 
energy of the plant will be forced into it. In one year the plants 
may be transplanted into the permanent orchard. 

There are several methods of budding. The shield, plate, 
chip,. and tubular methods are the ones most commonly employed. 
(Fig. 159.) 

All the methods of budding are based upon the same general 
principle, namely, that the cambium layer of the bark of the 
scion must fit and meet the cambium layer of the stock. It is 
through the cambium layer that the plant foods of the scion are 



340 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



carried to the stock. This is an important principle to observe 
in all grafting and budding work. From one thousand to two 
thousand buds can be set by an expert budder in a day. 

Methods of Scion Grafting. There are essentially two methods 
of scion graftage ; the whip, or tongue, graft, and 
the cleft graft. There are three positions of mak- 
ing grafts : 

1. Grafts made on roots are called root grafts. 

2. Grafts made on stocks just above the surface 
of the soil are called crown grafts. 

3. Grafts made in the tops of trees are called 
top grafts. 

Root and crown grafts are employed 
in grafting scions on stocks one or 
two years old. The whip, or tongue, 
method is generally em- 
ployed in root and crown fUii 
grafts. Top grafting is 
used in grafting scions 
upon tops of old trees. 
The cleft graft is used 
almost wholly in top 
grafting. 

Whip Grafting. Stocks 
of one year's growth are 

used in whip grafting. Cion of whip whip graft in Root graft. 

Seeds are planted in rows 
four feet apart in early 
spring, cultivated during the summer, dug up after the leaves 
have fallen off, and stored in convenient bundles in a cool cellar. 
The desired variety of scions is also cut in late fall and stored 
in bundles of fifty or one hundred each, in places similar to those 



Cion of whip 
graft. 



Whip graft in 
position. 

Fig. 160. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 



341 



used in storing the stock. Grafting may be done in January or 
February. This is a convenient time for making grafts for two 
reasons : 

1. The stock and scion become somewhat calloused during the 
winter. 

2. January and February are not busy months. 

It will be observed that Figure i6o shows a root graft. 
Crown grafts are made in the same way except that the stocks 
are not cut so close, and 
the graft meets at a point 
on the stock just at the 
base of the trunk. 

Relative to root graft- 
ing, Professor Howard 
says, " Owing to cheap- 
ness as well as ease in 
handling, I prefer scions 
six or seven inches long, 
and a section of root about 
three inches long." After 
grafts are made and well 
fitted they should be tied 
firmly, but not too tightly, 
with a string that will 
decay quickly after the 
young trees are planted the 
following spring. Trees 
should be stored in bundles 
of fifty or one hundred in a cool cellar to be kept until plant- 
ing time. 

Cleft Grafting. In top grafting, the following points should 
be observed : 




Cleft grafting. 



A waxed stub. 



Fig. i6i. 



342 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

1. The scion should be cut very smoothly and be from 4 to 
6 inches long above the stock. 

2. The lowest bud should stand just at the point shown in 
Fig. 161. 

3. The stock having a large area of exposed surface should 
be well covered with grafting wax to avoid decay. See the note 
below. 

4. Top grafts are made in early spring at about the time when 
trees begin to grow. The scions used should be entirely dor- 
mant, due to having been stored. (See Exercises 6 and 7.) 

Note. — Grafting wax has the following formula : 

Common rosin 5 parts 

Beeswax 2 parts 

Beef tallow i part 

(See Exercise 8.) 

Summary. — Plants are multiplied by seedage, by layerage, 
by cuttings and by graftage, depending on the kind of plants. 
But the increase of plants and the kinds of plants multiplied 
may be largely controlled by the selective power of man. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Study the Parts of a Flower. — (Apple, pear, and cherry flowers are 
perfect flowers and good for this lesson.) A dictionary or a botany text- 
book may be used as a reference. These will show names of the parts of the 
flower. Draw the flower and the parts of the flower in your permanent 
notebook. 

2. Study of Seed Dissemination. — Bring to school three or more 
kinds of seeds which have special devices which aid them in their dissemi- 
nation. Paste or draw these seeds in your notebook, and briefly describe 
how each may be disseminated. The written part may be made a language 
lesson. 



PLANT PROPAGATION 343 

3. Fill a Table like the Following, Examining at least Fifteen Seeds. 



Seeds Requiring a Lot of Moisture Seeds Requiring Only a Small Amount 

FOR Seed Germination I of Moisture for Seed Germination 



Five Seeds that Will Grow at a Low 
Temperature 



Five Seeds Needing Little Air for 
Germination 



Five Seeds that Will Grow at a High 
Temperature 



Five Seeds Needing More Air for 
Germination 



344 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

4. To Propagate Plants by Layering. — Have pupils attempt to propagate 
plants by using one of the systems of layering described in the text. Have 
them report the following year. 

5. Propagation in a Propagating Box. — Have pupils prepare or bring a 
propagating box and propagate some stem cuttings as described in the text. 

6. Visiting a Nurseryman and being Instructed by Him. — If there is a 
nurseryman in the neighborhood, have him come in, or go out to his place 
with the class in agriculture, and let him give you a lesson on plant propa- 
gation. Pupils should write such lessons in good English. 

7. Both Whip and Cleft Grafts should be Made by Pupils. 

8. Preparation of Grafting "Wax. — Break or pulverize into small par- 
ticles one pound of beef tallow, two pounds of beeswax, and five pounds of 
rosin. Stir the mixture thoroughly while melting. Let it cool after it is 
well mixed. Smaller proportionate quantities of the above ingredients may 
be used in this exercise in making grafting wax. 



CHAPTER XXV 
VEGETABLE GARDENING 

Importance of the Vegetable Garden. — Exclusive of the Irish 
and sweet potato crops, vegetable garden products are valued at 
about $216,257,068 for 1909.^ New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
Ilhnois, Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, in the order named, 
are the greatest producers of vegetables. (See Exercise i.) 

Every farm home and every home in town or city should, if 
possible, have a vegetable garden. Some of the reasons why 
every home should have a vegetable garden are : 

I. Fresh, home-grown vegetables furnish excellent food. All 
vegetables contain starches, fats, protein substances, ash, and 
water. All of these foods nourish the body, and aid in digestion. 

The Composition of Some Vegetables ^ 



Food Materials 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drates 


Ash 


Heat Value in a 
Pound. Calories 


Butter (for 














comparison) 


lO.S 


0.6 


85.0 


0-5 


0.3 


3515 


Peas . . . 


12.3 


26.7 


II. 7 


56.4 


2.9 


1565 


Beans . . . 


12.6 


23.1 


2.0 


59-2 


3-1 


1615 


Tomatoes . . 


95-3 


0.8 


0.4 


3-2 


0.3 


80 



Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Boards and a sash for making a hotbed (may be used to start plants for the 
gardens of the patrons) ; some samples of fruit (five of a kind make a sample) . 

1 United States Census Report, 1910. 

2 By permission of Professor F. M. Walters. Taken from his book entitled, 
Principles of Health Control. 

345 



346 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

From this table and other similar tables it may also be con- 
cluded that vegetables do not have the heat-producing capacity 
that meats and animal products have. Eating meats adds heat- 
producing fuel, whereas vegetables have a lower fuel value and 
may be eaten to advantage in summer in order to keep down 
the body temperature. The amount of heat produced in the 
body by food is measured in calories. A pound of tomatoes 
furnishes only 80 calories of heat, a pound of butter 3515 
calories. 

2. The home garden reduces the cost of living. Vegetables, 
when purchased, are fairly high priced. A small bunch of 
radishes, lettuce, onions, or celery sells for from 5 to 10 cents. 

3. The garden is an excellent laboratory in which to learn 
something about soil, soil management, and how to keep up the 
fertility of the soil. The growing of plants, management of 
hotbeds and cold frames, are helpful studies. The origin, 
history, and development of vegetables is an interesting field 
for investigation. 

4. Another reason why every home should have a garden is 
found in the fact that the garden yields about ten times as much 
food as a similar area will under general farm practice. A half 
acre planted to vegetables will yield from twelve to fifteen times 
as much food as when planted to corn or wheat. 

Elements of Success in Gardening. — Successful gardening 
depends upon several important factors : 

1. The soil must be a well-drained, dark, rich, sandy loam. 

2. If an early garden is desired, the soil should be a sandy 
loam, and on a southern slope. 

3. The soil should be plowed or spaded deep the preceding 
fall. 

4. The garden must be thoroughly cultivated. 

5. Good seeds must be planted. 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 347 

6. A good soil mulch must be maintained in order to conserve 
the soil moisture. Paths in gardens violate all principles of 
good farm practice, because paths usually contain large cracks, 
through which the soil moisture escapes. 

Garden Products for the Entire Year. — Gardens should be 
planted so that vegetables will be ready for table use the entire 
year. No exact dates can be given to cover this topic. Canning 
some vegetables and storing others must be resorted to if the 
garden is to be a 365-day garden. A few suggestions will be in 
order here. 

For early spring use, plant : 

Lettuce Rhubarb 

Radishes Strawberries 

Onions Cabbage 

Peas Mustard 

For summer use, plant a little later : 

Potatoes Beans 

Tomatoes Sweet Corn 

Beets Celery 

These vegetables can be used until late fall or early winter. 
Can tomatoes, sweet corn, and strawberries for winter use. 
Store turnips, sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, and onions. A well- 
planned garden is one which partially supplies the table daily the 
year round. (See Exercise 2.) 

Construction and Use of Hotbeds. — Hotbeds may be made 
any size according to the size of the glass available. A con- 
venient size is three by six feet. A pit 18 inches deep should be 
dug and filled with about 12 inches of half-decomposed horse 
manure, well packed. Manure composed of about one-half 
wheat straw is better, for fermentation will go on more rapidly. 
Cover this with 6 inches of good soil. Make the top so that 
the glass cover slants toward the south. (See Fig. 162.) 



348 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



A cold frame is made like a hotbed except that it is built on 
top of the soil. Hotbeds and cold frames are usually built on the 
south side of a building to get the greatest heat from the sun. 




A hotbed. 



Hotbeds are used for starting lettuce, radishes, tomatoes, 
cabbage, and other plants. After plants are well started in the 
hotbeds they should be transplanted into cold frames, where 
they become hardened. Hotbeds and cold frames should be 
maintained at a uniform temperature if the best results are to 
be obtained, and they should be protected from extremes of 
sunshine and cold. (See Exercise 3.) 

Plan of the Garden. — A long narrow garden is more easily 
tilled than a square one of the same size. A large garden can be 
cultivated with horse power. Vegetables should be planted the 
long way of the garden, and each row should extend from one 
end to the other. If the rows are planted 18 inches apart, a hand 
plow can be used to advantage. If a horse is to be used in cul- 
tivating, the rows should be at least 24 inches apart. 

The vegetables should be arranged when planted, so the 
planting can be started at one side of the garden and continued 
until the entire garden is planted. 

Above is a suggestive diagram of a home garden. Double 
cropping may be used ; that is, as soon as the growing plant is 
almost mature, others may be planted between the rows. For 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 



349 



illustration, between the rows of lettuce, radishes, peas, cabbage, 
and potatoes, other vegetables may be grown. Corn may be 
grown between the lettuce. Vining beans may be grown with 
the corn. Turnips may be sown in autumn where bunch beans 



Asparagng. 



Rhabarb. 



Parsnip. 



Salsify. 



Cncnmbers. followed by Pall Spinach. 



Early Potatoes or Peas, followed by Celery. 



Early'Cabbage and Cauliflower. 



Beets. 



Turnips. 



Lettnce, early and late. 



Winter Radish. 



Parsley. 



Onions, with early Rarfish sown in row. 



Bush Beans. 



Late Cabbage- 



Early Corn and Snmmer Sqnash. 



Late Corn. 



Tomatoes and Pole Beans. 



Mnsk and Watermelon. 



Winter Sqnash. 



■WEST. 

Fig. 163. — Diagram of home garden. 

grew in early summer. Double cropping has the following 
advantages : 

1. It produces more vegetables. 

2. It utilizes the land for a longer period. 

3. It has a tendency to keep the land more fertile, especially 
when beans and peas are rotated with other vegetables. 

4. The soil is tilled more, keeping the garden free from weeds. 
(See Exercise 4.) 

Lettuce. — Lettuce is grown for a salad plant more extensively 
than any other vegetable. Crisp, fresh lettuce is an excellent 



350 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

food for early summer, and is therefore an important crop among 
truck growers and gardeners. Lettuce is adaptable to a wide 
range of climatic conditions, and with proper cultivation will 
grow in almost every section of the United States the year round. 
In the South it is grown in the garden throughout the year. In the 
North it is grown under field conditions in early spring, summer, 
and fall, and during the winter as a forced crop in greenhouses. 

Lettuce plants are started in hotbeds by sowing the seeds in 
rows 3 or 4 inches apart, and covering them with a half inch of 
soil. After the plants are large enough they are transplanted 
into the cold frame, and later into the garden. Frequent culti- 
vation is essential to hasten the growth of lettuce. 

Mildew and rot are the most common diseases of lettuce, 
caused by wet, hot conditions. Especial care should be taken 
in watering lettuce to keep the water from coming in contact 
with the leaves of the plant. Sub-irrigation is usually employed 
in forcing lettuce. 

Potatoes. — Origin and History. The potato is of American 
origin, and at the time of the discovery of America was a domestic 
plant in parts of South America, Mexico, and in the southern 
part of the United States. About 1585 or 1586 potatoes were 
introduced into Europe, and soon became an important crop 
in Great Britain. They are grown so extensively in Ireland 
that in 1846, when potatoes were destroyed by blight, it caused 
the Great Famine, during which many Irishmen came to America. 
Potatoes furnish more food for direct table use than any other 
crop in the world, except rice. Three hundred and eighty-nine 
million bushels of potatoes, valued at $166,000,000, were pro- 
duced in the United States in 1909. The average yield was 
106. 1 bushels an acre. 

Management of Potatoes. A rich sandy loam is best suited 
to potato production. They should be planted early in the 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 



351 




1 iG. 104. — The Colorado potato-beetle. Forerunner of modern methods 
of msect control. 



spring, and be cultivated as soon as they come up. Level cultiva- 
tion is generally the best, until the last cultivation, when it is 
well to ridge the soil up to the potato rows. The potatoes are 
thus protected and the plants are prevented from falling down. 



352 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Potatoes a little above average size should be selected for 
seed. Hills vary in the number of potatoes produced. Seed 
potatoes should be taken only from hills that are prolific. 
S. Fraser says that " a piece of potato weighing three ounces, or 
as large as a good-sized egg, and having at least one good eye, 
is most profitable to plant." Experimental evidence seems to 
indicate that planting single eye pieces and quarters of potatoes 
is not as profitable as planting halves. And it has not been 
proved that planting whole potatoes produces larger yields than 
planting halves. 

If potatoes have a tendency to produce all tops and no tubers, 
there is a surplus of nitrogen and a lack of potash and lime. 
In this case potash in the form of wood ashes and lime should 
be added to the soil. 

For early maturing varieties, plant Early Rose, Early Ohio, 
and Irish Cobbler. For the late maturing varieties, plant Car- 
men, Rural New Yorker, Burbank, and White Giant. 

Enemies of Potatoes. The Colorado potato beetle is known 
by every gardener. The second crop of beetles defoliates 
the potato plants. Spray plants with a Paris green solution 
made by mixing one ounce of Paris green to two gallons of 
water. London purple and arsenate of lead may also be 
used. 

Potato scab is a fungous growth, causing rough corky areas 
over the potato. The fungus causing the disease lives in the 
soil from year to year. It may also reside on the potato. An 
abundance of stable manure fosters the growth of scab. To plant 
clean potatoes in a clean soil is the only way to prevent scab. 
The potatoes may be cleaned by soaking the uncut seed potatoes 
for two hours in a solution made by mixing one pint of formalde- 
hyde in thirty gallons of water. The soil may be kept clean by 
planting it in potatoes about one year in every four. All in- 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 



35- 



secticides are poisonous and therefore must be used with the 
greatest of care. (See Exercise 5.) 

Tomatoes. — Tomatoes are of American origin. They were 
carried to Europe from Peru. For a long time tomatoes were 
thought to be poisonous; they were used only for ornament, 
and were called '' Love Apples." After the notion that they 
were poisonous disappeared, their 
use for food grew rapidly, and to-day 
tomatoes are of considerable com- 
mercial importance. They are an 
important food because of the pro- 
tein, sugar, and ash that they con- 
tain, and because the acid in them 
aids digestion. 

Tomato Culture. Tomatoes are 
started in hotbeds in early spring. 
They require 100 to 140 days for 
their maturity, and therefore must 
be started early. Transplanting 
into the permanent garden should 
be done when the season is fairly 
sure, and when the plants have from 
6 to 8 leaves. Plants must be set 
deeply and the soil packed firmly 
about them. This precaution in 
setting out plants will aid much in 

keeping them alive. Where tomatoes are hand tilled, they 
may be set 3 to 4 feet apart each way, depending on the 
variety. 

If the seed bed for the plants was well prepared, little other 
than surface cultivation is needed to keep down the weeds and 
conserve the moisture. 




Fig. 165.- 



U. S. Depl. of Agricnliure. 
Pruned tomato vines. 



354 - PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Another important phase of tomato culture, if the best results 
are to be secured, is proper staking and pruning. Since they 
are susceptible to fungous diseases, they need much air and sun- 
shine. They should be staked and tied to the stakes. All 
suckers growing in the lateral axils should be removed. 

Varieties. For early use, plant the Earlianna, Bonnie Best, 
Early Jewell, and June Pink. For late use, plant the Ponderosa 
Stone, Acme, Matchless, Trophy, and Beauty. 

Fertilizers. Since tomatoes are grown for their fruit, ferti- 
lizers may be used to increase the yield. Potash and phosphoric 
acid fertilizers supply the needs of fruit ; and nitrogen fertilizers 
stimulate vegetative growth. Stable manures are not often 
used as fertilizers for tomatoes, because they cause an excessive 
growth of the plant, and hinder fruiting. Fertilizers in which 
the plant foods are readily available to the growing tomato 
plants should be used. 

Spraying Tomatoes. Tomatoes are subject to a fungous 
disease called leaf spot which turns the leaves yellow in spots, 
dries them up, and kills them. The disease spreads rapidly from 
leaf to leaf and from plant to plant. When leaf spot appears, 
the plants should be thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux mixture. 
They should be sprayed several times at intervals of 8 to lo 
days, depending upon conditions. Wet, damp, hot weather 
promotes the growth of leaf spot. 

Radishes. — Although they are adapted to a wide range of 
climatic conditions, radishes do best in early spring and fall 
when the temperature is moderately warm. If they are to have 
the best flavor and the proper crispness of texture, they must 
be grown quickly. A slow growth causes them to have an un- 
pleasant, acrid flavor and a tough, fibrous texture. 

Culture of Radishes. When radishes are grown alone, they 
are sown in rows 12 to 18 inches apart, one-half to one inch 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 



355 



deep. The soil should be what is called a " quick soil," com- 
posed of sand, clay, and humus. A " quick soil" can be tilled 
soon after a rain, because it is porous, permitting the rapid escape 
of free water, and because the black color, caused by the humus, 
absorbs the sun rays and warms it quickly. 

Radishes are often grown as one of a " succession crop," 
between two rows of lettuce. On each side of these three 
rows is grown a row of pota- 
toes, cabbage, peas, beans, or 
sweet corn. (Fig. 163.) A 
continuous supply of radishes 
may be had by sowing seeds 
at successive intervals of 
about ten days. If radishes 
are to be sold on the market, 
they should be tied in bundles 
of six radishes to each bundle. 
(Fig. 166.) The tops are left 
on, because they protect the 
radishes to some extent. (See 
Exercise 6.) 

Garden Peas. — Peas re- 
quire a warm, "quick soil," 
if they are grown in early 
spring. A rich, friable, well- 
drained soil is desirable for 
their early development. The dwarf and early maturing varie- 
ties, such as the Alaska and American Wonder, should be 
planted early. They may be planted from 3 to 6 inches apart 
in rows from 15 to 18 inches apart. If peas are wanted for 
midsummer, larger and later maturing varieties. Telephone, 
White Marrow, Fat, and Pride of the Market, should be 




Fig. 166. — Buncli of radishes. 



356 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



planted. Vining peas may be trained to grow on poultry wire 
netting. Three-foot netting makes a satisfactory trellis. 

Peas as Food. Peas and beans have hardly an equal as food. 
They are rich, not only in protein substance, but in the other 
nutrients. Their composition follows : 



Food 


Water 


Protein 


Fat 


Carbohy- 
drate 


Ash 


Heat Value 
OF One Pound 


Butter (for 












calories 


comparison) 


lO.S 


0.6 


85.0 


0.0 


0.8 


351S 


Peas . . . 


12.3 


26.7 


1-7 


56.4 


2.9 


1565 


Beans . . . 


12.6 


23.1 


2.0 


59-2 


3-1 


1615 


Potatoes (for 














contrast) 


78.9 


2.1 


0.1 


17.9 


0.1 


315 



It will be observed from the above table that peas and beans 
are rich in protein and ash materials. This combined with 
their high carbohydrate content makes them very nutritious. 
Peas and beans should be grown, not only because of their 
excellent flavor, but also because they furnish an abundance of 
nutrition to the body. 

Beans. — The culture of beans is like that of peas, except 
that beans require a warmer temperature, and therefore must 
be planted later. For early maturing varieties, plant early 
maturing dwarf or bunch beans. Red and White Kidney beans 
are early dwarf varieties. For later maturing varieties, use pole 
beans, such as the vining Lima and the Kentucky Wonder. 

Cabbage. — Cabbage is a favorite garden vegetable through- 
out the United States, and in some sections it is grown extensively 
as a commercial crop. The tonnage produced per acre is large 
and the price generally low, but the sale of cabbage is assured 
because of its wide use. Cabbage requires a great deal of mois- 
ture for its growth, and for this reason may be planted in a soil 



VEGETABLE GARDENING 357 

that contains more than an average amount of moisture. There 
is an old saying that " cabbage should be hoed every day." This 
is almost true, for frequent cultivation maintains an earth mulch 
which conserves the soil moisture. 

Cabbage requires an abundance of plant foods rich in potash 
and phosphorus. Stable manure may be applied, but, in addi- 
tion, either acid phosphate at the rate of 750 pounds per acre, 
or muriate of potash at the rate of 500 pounds per acre, will help 
production. A fertilizer composed of nitrogen 2 per cent, phos- 
phorus 6 to 8 per cent, and potash 8 to 10 per cent is usually satis- 
factory. i\bout 1200 to 1800 pounds per acre should be applied. 

Varieties. Early Jersey Wakefield and Henderson's Early 
Summer are early varieties ; the Flat Dutch, Stone Mason, and 
Autumn King are later maturing varieties. Each of these 
varieties has been developed with flat, conical, or spherical heads. 
Different markets demand different shaped heads. Catering to 
the demands of the market is a part of good gardening. 

The Enemies of Cabbage. Probably the worst insect enemy 
of cabbage is the cabbage worm. It is an inch to an inch and a 
half long, has a green velvety appearance and a faint yellow stripe 
down the middle line of the back. These larvae, which develop 
into the " cabbage butterfly," eat irregular holes in the leaves, 
and disfigure the heads of the plants with deposits of excrement. 
" Arsenicals may be used safely on cabbage until they are half 
grown. Hellebore may be used on plants ready for market." ^ 

Other insects injurious to cabbage are the flea beetle, root 
maggot, cutworms, and cabbage aphis. For their control write 
to your State Entomologist, who generally resides at the State 
College of Agriculture. (See Exercises 7, 8, and 9.) 

Summary. — Every home, not only in the country but also 
in the city, should have a vegetable garden. And if the garden 

' O'Kane : Injurious Insects. 



358 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



is carefully planned, vegetables may be had almost every day in 
the year. The cost of living may be reduced to a considerable 
extent even by a small garden. Vegetables are healthful as 
well as nutritious. The elements of success in gardening are a 
careful preparation of the seedbed, thorough cultivation, and 
the successful combating of vegetable enemies. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Estimate the Value of the Products of the Home Garden. — Have 

each pupil, with the help of his parents, figure the value of the products 
derived from his home garden. Have the pupils bring an itemized state- 
ment of the value of the dififerent vegetables produced in their home garden. 
Discuss. 

2. Methods of Preserving Vegetables. — Have pupils discuss this ques- 
tion, "What are the methods used in storing, canning, or keeping ten garden 
vegetables? " 

3. Making of a Hotbed. — If it is springtime, have pupils design and make 
a hotbed, and start some lettuce, cabbage, and tomato plants. This exercise 
can also be done in the fall. 

4. Planning a Garden. — Have pupils plan the arrangement of vegetables 
for a garden one hundred by two hundred feet. 

6. Scoring Samples of Fruit. — Score single plate samples of tomatoes, 
potatoes, radishes, turnips, or any other suitable vegetables according to the 
following score card. (Five of a kind generally constitute a sample.) 





Score Card 










Points 


Sample Scored 












Form 

Size 

Color 

Uniformity .... 
Freedom from blemishes 


15 

15 

20 
20 
30 











VEGETABLE GARDENING 359 

Explanation of Values. 

Form (75) refers to the normal type and shape of the variety. For each 
specimen varying from the type, cut according to judgment. 

Size {15). The size most in demand by the market may be considered the 
best size. Oversized vegetables should be discouraged, but a size slightly 
above the average may be considered best. Apply score according to judg- 
ment. 

Color {20). The color should be uniform, and show that all specimens of 
the sample belong to the same variety. Cut according to judgment. 

Uniformity {20). All points pertaining to size, color, shape, and texture, 
are important. Cut according to judgment. 

Freedom from blemishes (jo). Freedom from blemishes is essential to a 
good sample. Bruised places, decayed spots, and a diseased surface are 
objectionable. Cut according to judgment. 

(Two or more days may be devoted to this lesson.) 

6. Kinds and Varieties of Vegetables Grown in your Home Garden. — 
Write the kind and varieties of each of the vegetables grown in your home 
garden. 

7. Combating Insects. — What are the five worst enemies of your vege- 
table garden? Write a paragraph about each, telling how you would com- 
bat it. 

8. Play Contest. — Have a running contest, using potatoes, tomatoes, 
turnips, or any other suitable vegetable that is available. 

9. A Composition Exercise. — Have boys write a story telling about the 
growing of any garden vegetable, and have the girls write about, " How 
to Can Some Garden Vegetable." 



CHAPTER XXVI 



FRUIT GROWING 



Importance. — According to reports, the value of all fruits 
produced in the United States is about $140,867,000.^ This 
represents 2.6 per cent of the total value of all the farm crops. 
The production of orchard fruits is distributed throughout 
the United States. There is hardly a home, especially in the 
rural districts, that has not a few fruit trees. Apples, peaches, 
cherries, plums, and berries are so well liked that nearly every 
home owner should grow one or more of these fruits. The value 
and relative importance of the leading fruits are here given for 
one year. 

0% - 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 



APPLES 


$83,231,000 










59.1% 


PEACHES & ) 

nectarines; 


38,781,000 






1 20.4% 












PLUMS &) 
PHUNES J 


10,299,000 


■■^7.1 


% 










PEARS 


7,911,000 


^^5.4% 










CHERRIES 


7.231,000 


■IM 5.0 %! 










ALL OTHER} 
FRUITS / 




■■3.0% 













Graph ii. The value and per cent of fruits grown in the United States. 



Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Several grasshoppers and bees ; a glass jar ; a cabbage worm ; samples 
of apples, peaches, pears ; scales. 

^Census Report, 1909. 
360 



FRUIT GROWING 



361 



The chemical composition of all fruits is such that they are 
not only nutritious but very valuable in aiding digestion. The 
composition of some of the fruits is given below : 



Fruit 



Apples 
Peaches 
Cherries 
Grapes 



Proteids 



0.2 

0.7 

1.2 



Fats 



0.4 
0.0 
0.0 
0.0 



Carbohy- 
drates 



15-9 
14-5 

lO.O 

15-0 



Total 
Solids 



16.8 
15.2 
10.5 
16.2 



Water 



83.2 
84.8 
89-5 
83-3 



Most fruits contain also some acids which help to digest food 
and prevent constipation. An apple eaten before retiring has 
a helpful effect. (See Exercise i.) 

Elements of Success in Fruit Growing. — The elements of 
success in fruit growing are numerous and depend somewhat 
upon local conditions. However, a few of the fundamentals 
for successful orcharding which have general application through- 
out the country, will be discussed. 

Soils Adaptable to Orcharding. — Almost all orchard trees 
feed deeper than does the average crop. For this reason a deep 
porous soil and subsoil are essential. A soil that is underlaid 
with hardpan is not adaptable to orcharding, but a gravelly or a 
sandy subsoil is not seriously objectionable. In fact, some of 
the most productive orchards are in regions that have a gravelly 
subsoil. A loose soil and subsoil allow free aeration, a condition 
essential to orcharding. An impervious subsoil holds the water, 
and few orchard plants thrive in such a condition. 

Although orchards do moderately well on soils of low fertility, 
a soil that is fairly fertile is desirable. Soil drainage is more 
essential than soil fertility. Fertility may be increased, but an 
impervious soil cannot be made porous. 



362 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Rich bottom lands seldom furnish good orchard soils. This is 
because fruit trees have a tendency to produce too much vege- 
tative growth on such lands, and to remain barren. Fairly fertile, 
porous, mellow uplands are best suited to fruit production. 

The Location of the Orchard. — South slopes are warmer than 
north slopes and give more exposure to the sun, which is essential 
for producing highly-colored fruits. North slopes are usually 
more fertile and do not warm up so easily in spring. A fruit 
crop is often saved because the orchard is on a north slope. A 
north slope often prevents sun scalds of the trunks of fruit 
trees. The best slope for an orchard depends somewhat on 
the climate. 

Air drainage should also be taken into consideration in locating 
an orchard. Cool air is heavier than warm air and sinks to the 
lowest levels. For this reason frosts are more common during 
early spring and late fall in valleys than upon higher places. 
Occasionally a fruit crop is lost because the orchard is in a low 
valley. 

The top of a hill is not a desirable location for orchards, because 
(i) the trees are exposed too much to the winds which often 
break them, and (2) the fruit is blown off the trees where there is 
too much exposure. Both very low and very high places should 
be avoided in selecting an orchard site. (See Exercise 2.) 

Preparation of the Soil. — The soils in which orchards are to 
be planted should be prepared as for the sowing of wheat or plant- 
ing of corn. If the soil is to be cropped the preceding summer, 
soybeans or cowpeas may be used to improve the soil both 
physically and chemically. Soybeans are a fine crop to precede 
the planting of an orchard. The soil should be plowed deep and 
worked down so that its tilth is good. The ground may be har- 
rowed occasionally to keep down the weeds and to keep an earth 
mulch which helps to conserve the moisture. 



FRUIT GROWING 363 

Planting Fruit Trees. — How far apart trees should be set 
depends upon the kind of tree and the fertility of the soil. The 
following table is suggestive : 

Apples 25 to 30 feet each way 

Pears 20 feet each way 

Peaches 20 feet each way 

Plums 20 feet each way 

Cherries 18 feet each way 

Grapes 6 feet by 8 feet 

Trees should be set in the orchard at about the depth to which 
they were planted in the nursery. Before setting a tree all 
bruised and broken roots should be removed with a sharp knife, 
and the top should be cut back as indicated in Fig. 167. In 
trimming a tree it is well to remember that the tops cannot 
grow a root system, but that a good root system can grow a top. 

In moving, trees should not be permitted to lie in the sun and 
wind, for this soon destroys the vitality. The violation of this 
rule and poor setting kill more trees than all other factors com- 
bined. The most important point in setting trees is to firmly 
pack the loose soil around the roots. Tramping the soil around 
the roots is a good practice. After a small amount of soil is 
shoveled around the roots, it should be packed ; then more soil 
should be added and packed again. The top two or three inches 
should be left in the form of a loose mulch. ' 

Tillage of Orchards. — Cultivation of orchard crops is neg- 
lected more than that of any other farm crop. If corn fields were 
permitted to grow up in hay and weeds such as are often seen in 
orchards, it would be quite reasonable to expect small returns. 
Likewise the returns from untilled orchards are short. Young 
orchards should be kept free from weeds, but tilled crops, cowpeas, 
soybeans, corn, strawberries and other plants may be grown 
to advantage. In cultivating orchards care should be taken not 



364 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



/ 



to bark the growing trees, because the bruises bring on disease. 
Orchards should not be cultivated after the latter part of July 
or the early part of August. A cover crop of rye or wheat may 
be sown in September. This protects the soil for the winter. 
Occasionally a green cover crop of soybeans or 
cowpeas is plowed under to maintain the organic 
content of the soil. Exceedingly steep orchard 
lands should not be cultivated. 

Pruning Trees. — Most fruit trees need prun- 
ing. There are three main reasons for pruning 
trees : 

1. To control the size and shape of the top. 

2. To remove dead branches. 

3. To stimulate and promote either vegetative 
growth or fruit ful- 
ness. 

I. Trees should 

Fig. 167. — A 
pear tree properly be pruned to a 

^^^^^ ■ pyramidal shape, or 

an open vase form. Forked trees 
are undesirable. (See Fig. 168.) 
The tree may be pruned when 
young so that the head of the tree 
is near the ground. This method 
has some important advantages. 

a. The trunk of the tree will be 
protected from the sun, and sun 
scald prevented. 

b. The work of gathering, spraying, and pruning can be done 
more easily and cheaply. 

c. Trees are. not so easily wind broken. 

2. All dead branches should be removed. Water shoots and 




Fig. 168. ■ 



^^.*..> 



- A shapely, well-formed 
peach tree. 



FRUIT GROWING 



365 



other limbs that tend to crowd the top should be pruned out in 
order that all the strength of the tree may go into the growth of 
the desirable limbs or fruit. 

3. To promote vegetative growth, trees should be pruned in 
winter. But if they grow too vigorously, they should be pruned 
in summer. This checks vegetative .. ^ 

growth and causes the additional plant 
food to form buds. These fruit buds are 
formed in June and July of the summer 
preceding the bearing season. If pruning 
is employed to stimulate fruit produc- 
tion, it should be done about the first 
of June. 

Fruit buds are borne upon short limbs 
called " spurs," which occur on wood one 
year old or more. Heading in or cutting 
the limbs back should be done with care, 
lest the bearing wood is decreased to 
such an extent that the fruit crop may 
be greatly curtailed. In pruning, the 
limbs should be cut so that the wound 
will heal over quickly. Limbs should be 
cut near the trunk or near the Hmbs from 
which they branch. (See Fig. 170.) 

Figure 169 illustrates poor pruning. 
The wound cannot be quickly covered by new growth, and 
the part of the limb remaining on the tree will decay and 
cause a weak place. Limbs should be cut closely to the trunk 
of the tree. The wound will then heal over quickly and the 
covered tissues will all be sound and solid. Wounds should be 
covered with ordinary white lead to prevent decay. (See Exer- 
cise 3.) 




Fig. 169. 



The wrong way to 
prune. 



366 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Fruits : The Apple. — Origin and Development. Apples origi- 
nated in southeastern Europe or southwestern Asia. The wild 
crab is claimed to be the original from which came our domestic 
apples. The wild crab even to-day will readily hybridize, or cross, 

with our domestic vari- 
eties. Apple twigs may 
be budded, or grafted, 
on root stocks of the 
wild crab, and vice 
versa. This shows the 
close relationship be- 
tween the domestic 
apple and the wild 
crab. For lack of 
space we cannot touch 
upon the effects of the 
grafting of the domestic 
apple upon the crab, 
but it may be interest- 
ing to take it up in 
class discussion. 

In the evolution of 
our domestic apple, 
some interesting facts may be noted. It indicates how slowly 
characters are developed. The wild crab possessed some char- 
acters which have been left as remnants of the past. Among 
these the following may be observed : 

1. The wild crab bore a large number of apples in one cluster. 

2. The apples in these clusters were comparatively small. 

3. The flavor of the wild crab was sour and acid. 

4. The apples had a large number of seeds. 

In the development of the apple each of these points (charac- 




FiG. 170. — The right way to prune. 



FRUIT GROWING 367 

ters) was largely overcome. The first problem of the breeder of 
apple trees was to eliminate the large number of apples to the 
cluster. This could be done only by selection and by using for 
propagation only those that had fewer apples in a cluster. It 
took many generations to reduce the large number of apples in 
a cluster such as the crab grew, to the few found in the domestic 
varieties that are still somewhat like the crab in this respect. 
The Winesap is such a variety. 

As the number of apples to the cluster was reduced, the size of 
the apples became larger. The wild crab measured about one- 
half to three-fourths of an inch in diameter. To increase these 
kinds until they were one inch, one and one-half inches, and two 
inches in diameter was an interesting problem for the plant 
breeder. It took more than a few generations to secure this 
evolution. 

From the wild sour crab, there have been developed over two 
thousand varieties of apples, each with a special flavor. These 
flavors, though being different in quality, are now generally classed 
as sweet, acid, sour, semi-acid, and aromatic. 

Another problem of the plant breeders has been that of reduc- 
ing the number of seeds in the apple. The wild crab apple had 
from 15 to 20 seeds; the best apples of to-day have only 6 or 8 
seeds. Breeders are now trying to grow seedless varieties. 

There are other features of the evolution of the apple that are 
just as interesting as the illustrations given above. In the 
course of evolution the " characters of plant life " have been 
just as numerous and marvelous as have those pertaining to 
the animal kingdom. 

Varieties of Apples. Care should be exercised, in choosing 
varieties for the home orchard, to select only such varieties as are 
known to do well in the locality. If an orchard is planted for 
commercial purposes, the " market demands " should also be 



368 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



considered. For family use, it is good practice to plant some 
summer, some fall, and some winter apples. The following 
list may help : 



Summer 


Fall 


Winter 


Red June 

Yellow Transparent 
Red Astrachan 
Early Harvest 
Maiden Blush 


Wealthy 
Grimes Golden 
Jonathan 

Huntsman Favorite 


Gano 

Ingram 
Delicious 
York Imperial 
Stayman Winesap 




Fig. 171. — Mouth parts of a beetle, illustrating biting mouth parts. 



The above list is suggestive. It may be added to and sub- 
tracted from according to the findings of apple growers of the 
locality. (See Exercises 4 and 5.) 



FRUIT GROWING 



369 



Enemies of Apples: Insects. From the standpoint of control 
there are two kinds of insects : i . Those that secure their food 
by chewing; 2. those that secure their food by sucking. The 
insects belonging to the first group get their food by biting off 
parts of the vegetation. They have a pair of jaws intended for 
chewing or biting. (See Fig. 171.) If we examine a grasshopper 
or a beetle, we shall find that it pos- 
sesses a pair of biting instruments called 
mandibles. But if we examine a butter- 
fly, a moth, or a bee, we find no jaws or 
parts that may be used to bite or to 
chew. Instead we find a long tube 
(proboscis) through which the insect 
sucks its food. (See Fig. 172.) Some of 
the enemies of the orchard belong to 
the first group, others to the second. 
(See Exercises 6 and 7.) 

The methods for controlling are differ- 
ent. O'Kane says : " Insects with biting 
mouth parts may be killed by covering 
the plant on which they feed with a 
poison such as lead arsenate. Insects ^ ,, , 

^ ^ _ Fig. 172. — Mouth parts of a 

with sucking mouth parts do not eat the honeybee, illustrating sucking 

surface of the plant and cannot be ^'^'^^^' 
killed by applications of stomach poison. For the latter, other 
remedies must be used, — some substance that will kill the insect 
by corrosive action on its body." ^ These remedies are usually 
called contact insecticides, such as kerosene emulsions or lime 
sulphur wash. A few enemies of the apple will be discussed and 
a spray mixture will be suggested that will successfully combat 
all enemies named. 

^ O'Kane : Injurious Insects. 

2B 




37° 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Codling Moth. The adult Codling Moth lays its eggs on the 
calyx of the apple blossom. In a few days the eggs hatch and the 




Fig. 173. — The time to spray for the 
Codling Moth. The calyx still open. 
Original. 



Fig. 174. — Too late to spray for the 
Codling Moth. The calyx closed. Orig- 
inal. 



larva enters the young fruit through the calyx end. (See Figs. 
173-178.) The larva feeds on the inside of the apple, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 178. 

The mature larva comes out of the apple, 
finds a suitable 
shelter for the winter 
and spins its cocoon. 



0^ 





Fig. 175. ~ Larva of the 
Codling Moth. Slightly en- 
larged. Original. 



Fig. ijb. — Cocoon of 
the Codling Moth un- 
derneath a piece of bark. 
At the top, the pupa. 
Original. 



Fig. 177.— The Cod- 
ling Moth. Adult, 
slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 



FRUIT GROWING 



371 



Since the worm gets its food by biting, to kill it, spray just 
before apple blossoms bloom and again just after the blossoms 
have fallen. The second spraying is more important. Spray 
again three weeks later. Use a solution made by dissolving two 
pounds of arsenate of lead in fifty gallons of water, or by mix- 




FiG. 178. — Section through apple showing characteristic work of the Codling Moth. 

Original. 



ing four ounces of Paris Green in fifty gallons of water. (See 
Exercise 8.) 

San Jose Scale. The San Jose Scale is among the worst insect 
enemies of orchards. It attacks all kinds of vegetation and in a 
few seasons may kill peach or plum trees. Apple trees, being 
more hardy, withstand its ravages a Little longer. (See Fig. 

I79-) 

The San Jose Scale is a sucking insect, and a contact insecticide 
must be used in combating it. Such an insecticide may be either 
of the following : 



372 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Homemade Concentrated Lime Sulphur 

Lump lime 60 lb. 

Sulphur 125 lb. 

Water 50 gallons 

In making this spray, first mix the sulphur with the water, 
and then add the Hme. 

Kerosene Emulsion 

Hard soap ^ lb. 

Hot water i gallon 

Kerosene 2 gallons 

Trees should be treated before the vegetation appears. O'Kane 
says : " The best time for apphcation is in the spring just before 
the buds swell. Where the infection is severe it is well to spray 
in the fall after the leaves have dropped and again in the spring." ^ 
Apple Scab. Apple Scab is a fungous disease of apples that 
attacks both fruit and foliage. It thrives best in moist, cool 
weather. Scab disfigures and distorts the fruit by preventing 
growth where it occurs. 

A prevention and a remedy for Apple Scab is found in the use 
of Bordeaux Mixture. This spray is made by mixing the follow- 
ing : 

Copper sulphate 4 lb. 

Lime 4 lb. 

Water 50 gallons 

Spray trees just before blooms open, and again after the blooms 
are off, and a third time when the apples are about half grown. 
This will control the apple scab, rot, and mildew. 

Borers. There are two kinds of borers that attack apple 
trees, the Round-headed Borer and the Flat-headed Borer. 
The Round-headed Borer bores under the bark just beneath 

^ O'Kane : Injurious Insects. 



FRUIT GROWING 373 

the surface or slightly above the surface of the ground. The 
Flat-headed Borer works about three feet above the surface of 
the ground. Both are killed in the same manner. Use a knife 




Fig. 179. — The San Jose Scale. Above, natural size. Center, enlarged. Below, a 
single scale, enlarged. Original. 

to find the openings made by the worm and then insert a wire 
into every opening. This will probably destroy them if every 
portion of the opening is penetrated. (See Exercise 9.) 

Peaches. — Soil and Culture. Peaches demand a fairly dry, 
porous soil, and will not thrive in a wet, compact soil. The 



374 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



subsoil should also be porous. Clean cultivation is recommended 
for peach orchards. A by-crop such as potatoes, strawberries, 

or currants may be grown with the 
peaches. Spring planting is preferable. 
The trees should be planted about 
twenty feet apart and as deep as they 
stood in the nursery. 

Varieties of Peaches. The following 
is a suggestive hst of peaches classi- 
fied according to the seasons in which 
they mature : 




Summer 


Fail 


Carmen 


Heath 


Champion 


Beauty 


Sneed 


Iron Mountain 


Elberta 


Krummel October 


Crosby 





Fig. i8o. — Egg-laying punc- 
tures of the Plum Curculio 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



Enemies of Peaches. Leaf Curl, due 
to a fungous growth, disfigures the 
leaves, which often grow twice their 
normal size. Spray with Bordeaux 
Mixture just before the buds open. 
Brown Rot is a soft rot which destroys the peach fruit, just a 
few days before maturity. It is most prevalent during hot, wet 
weather. There is no cure for Brown Rot. Spraying trees 
with self-boiled lime just after the blossoms have fallen, and 
again three or four weeks later, will control it somewhat. 

Peach Scab causes large blotches on peaches, and often causes 
them to crack open. The treatment for scab is the same as for 
Brown Rot. 

The Plum Curculio ruins peaches by its stings, and scatters the 
Brown Rot. If the curculio is controlled, the Brown Rot dis- 



FRUIT GROWING 375 

appears. (Fig. 180.) To combat the Plum CurcuHo, spray with 
arsenate of lead, using the following composition : 

Arsenate of lead I2 lb- 
Lime 2 lb. 

Water 50 gallons 

Spray the first time when the calyx tubes are falling off, and 
again three weeks later. If needed, a third spraying may be 
applied. (See Exercise 10.) 




Fig. 181. — The Plum Curculio. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

Plums. — Plums are planted like peaches. They thrive best 
in moist places, on north slopes, and along streams. A classi- 
fication of plums in the order of their maturity follows : 

American Plum Varieties 



Milton 

Robinson 

Forest 

Missouri Apricot 
Japanese Plum Varieties 

Abundance 

Chabot 
European Plum Varieties 

Green Gage 

Lombard 



Wild Goose 

Newman 

Wayland 



Burbank 



German Prune 
Shropshire Damson 



376 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

The principles of spraying suggested in the preceding sections 
apply to spraying for the enemies of plums. 

Cherries. — Cherries grow best in a medium dry, porous, well- 
drained soil. They should be set from fifteen to twenty feet 
apart. After the third or fourth year, there is Uttle need for 
cultivation. If they are cultivated after this, the tillage should 
be very shallow, because the roots of cherries grow very near the 
surface of the soil. The best varieties are : 
Early Richmond Wragg 

Montmorency English Morello 

Cherries and plums are liable to be destroyed by the fruit-rot 
fungus if they are left on the trees until they are ripe. It is 
therefore important that these fruits be picked early. 

Grapes. — There should be grapes in every orchard. They 
furnish an excellent arbor, are safe bearers, and provide a good 
fruit. A well-drained but moist soil is best adapted to grape 
production. 

Grapes are propagated by cuttings and layerings. Layers or 
cuttings may be planted in the permanent place or orchard when 
two years old. The vines should be trained to grow on a three- 
wire trellis. They may be expected to bear when three or four 
years old. 

In pruning grapes, three buds are ordinarily left on each 
branch. Dead wood should be removed. 

Varieties of Grapes. The common standard varieties of 
grapes are the following : 

Green Mountain — an early white grape. 

Moore's Early — an early black grape. 

Moore's Diamond — a white grape. 

Worden — a large black grape. 

Concord — the old standard black grape. 

Wyoming Red — a small red grape. 



FRUIT GROWING 377 

Enemies of Grapes. Black Rot is the worst disease of grapes. 
It causes small black spots on the fruit. To combat Black Rot 
spray with Bordeaux Mixture. The first spray should be appUed 
when the third leaf appears ; the second before the blooms open ; 
the third after blooming, and again two or three weeks later. 

Summary. — Fruit growing is important in every section of the 
United States, and some fruit is found on almost every farm. 
Fruit growing is fairly successful in most sections, but better 
results would be secured if proper attention were given to it. 
Orchards are too frequently neglected. If an equal time were 
given to our orchards as is given to other crops, the results 
would be more satisfactory. 

Selection of the orchard site, cultivation, and combating 
enemies are essential to success. Proper spraying is necessary 
if good sound fruit is to be secured. Quality and freedom from 
blemishes are the first considerations of the market in the pur- 
chase of fruits. The score card of the preceding chapter is 
worthy of close study. 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Fruit Survey of School District. — With the help of every pupil in 
school, take a census of the number of apple, peach, cherry, plum, and pear 
trees in the school district. 

2. Orchard Sites. — Discuss the " Orchard Sites " of the five best orchards 
in the district. 

3. Some Observations Regarding Pruning. — Observe the practice regard- 
ing pruning in at least two orchards. Describe and discuss each. 

4. Seasonal Maturity of Apples. — Name, according to seasonal maturity, 
at least ten varieties of apples found in your neighborhood. 

5. Description of Fruit Trees and Their Fruits. — Go to a near-by orchard 
and study at least two of each, of apple, peach, and pear trees, and their 
fruits, filling the following outline according to your findings. 



378 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



Description of Fruit Trees and Their Fruits 



I. Description of tree 

(a) Size 










I. Small 










2. Medium 










3- Large 

(b) Form 

I. Upright 










2. Spreading tree .... 










3. Open 










4. Close headed .... 










5. Round topped .... 










6. Irregular 










(c) Bark 

I. Smooth 










2. Rough 










3. Color 










(d) Foliage 

I. Abundant 










2. Sparse 










3. Color 










4. Texture 










(e) Productivity 

I. Prolific 










2. Not so 










(/) Hardiness 

I. Very hardy .... 










2. Easily killed .... 










2. Fruit. 

(a) Form 

I. Round 










2. Oblong 










3. Oblate 










4. Conic 










(6) Size 

I. Large 










2. Medium 










3. Small 





















FRUIT GROWING 



379 



Description of Fruit Trees and Their Fruits {Continued) 



(f) Stem 

I. Long 










2. Short 










3. Stout 










{d) Calyx cavity 

I. Large and deep 










2. Small 










3. Shallow 










{e) Basin 

I. Deep 










2. Medium deep 










3. Broad 










(/) Skin 

I. Thick 










2. Feel, — soft, rough, 

coarse 










3. Color 










(g) Core 

I. Large or small 










2. Number of seeds 










3. Stone 










ih) Flesh 

I. Color 










2. Flavor 










3. Texture — firm mellow 










(z) Season 

I. Spring 










2. INIidsummer 










3. Fall 










4. Winter 





















6. Study the Mouth Parts of Biting Insects. — Bring to school a large 
grasshopper and study its parts. Examine the mouth parts carefully and 
draw them. Write a brief discussion, stating how you would combat insects 
with similar mouth parts. 

7. Study the Mouth Parts of Sucking Insects. — Bring to school a bee, 
or any other insect having sucking mouth parts, and carefully examine its 



380 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

mouth parts. Draw and describe what you find. Write a brief discussion, 
stating how you would combat insects with similar mouth parts. 

8. Study of the Life History of an Insect. — Bring a worm found in an 
apple to the school, and place in a large glass bottle or jar. Place a worm- 
eaten apple in the jar with the worm. From three to six weeks may be 
required to note changes in the transformation of the worm. A cabbage 
worm may be used in this exercise. Whatever insect is used, proper feed 
should be provided. Draw the stages of the life history of one insect. 
Look up the terms larva and pupa. 

9. Scoring Fruits. — ■ Score several samples of fruit, using the general 
score card found at the close of the preceding chapter. (Page 358.) 

10. Study One Function of the Covering of Fruits. — Bring two apples 
to school ; weigh the smaller one. Peel the larger and pare it down until its 
weight is the same as the weight of the other apple. Weigh apples on 
alternate days for about two or three weeks. Record weights. At the close 
of the exercise draw a conclusion as to one of the functions of the covering 
of fruits. Discuss the reasons for the change of weights in the apples 
tested. 

Note. — Potatoes, peaches, or tomatoes may be used in this Exercise. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
THE FARMER'S WOOD LOT 

Reasons for Having a Wood Lot. — Since the forests of the 
United States are being largely depleted, every farmer, especially 
in the prairie states, where conditions permit, should have a 
wood lot. A wood lot provides fuel, fence posts, telephone and 
telegraph poles, railroad cross ties, lumber for building purposes, 
and materials used in making furniture and cabinets. It is 
often placed so that it serves as a windbreak to the house, and 
to the farm animals. In other instances, it protects steep hill- 
sides from the heavy washing rains. And sometimes, it may 
utilize waste lands. The wood lot is of considerable economic 
importance and should be considered as one of the regular farm 
crops. 

Location of Wood Lots. — In many woodland sections, timber 
grows along streams and hillsides, occupying places which, in 
many instances, would otherwise be waste lands. In some cases 
the wood lot may be planted along the streams and the hillsides, 
places which cannot be tilled profitably. 

In the colder prairie sections, the wood lot is often located just 
north and west of the house so that it breaks the sweep of the 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Pasteboard about 14 X 20 inches ; small limbs of as many varieties of 
woods as can be found in the district. These should be provided by the 
pupils; limbs should be three inches long and three-fourths inch in 
diameter. 

381 



382 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

winter winds. In some sections, trees are planted for this pur- 
pose alone. Even if trees are to serve as a windbreak, it may 
be well to consider the additional point of planting trees that 
have an economic value. Too often trees are planted which 
have little money value. Every tree, besides serving its regular 
purpose, should be of such a nature that it can be sold and 
turned into money or used on the farm. 

Trees may be set along roadsides for ornamentation, but not 
for the purpose of growing lumber. Trees along roadsides 
grow many branches and much vegetation, as trees always 
do when growing in places where there is plenty of room. Trees 
along pastures and fields lay a heavy tax upon the crops growing 
near them. A row of mature trees growing along a field a 
quarter of a mile long will use the plant food of at least an acre 
or more. Before trees are planted along fields the results should 
be carefully estimated. (See exercises at close of chapter.) 

Varieties of Trees to Plant. — The variety of trees to plant 
depends upon the kind of soil in which they are to grow, the pur- 
pose for which they are to be used, and the climate. The trees 
growing in a locality indicate to some extent what kind of trees 
will be adaptable. Maples, box elders, oaks, willows, will grow 
in fairly fertile soils. Walnut, hardy catalpa, hickory, chestnut, 
locust, and others do better in a deep soil because they have deep- 
growing root systems. The Osage orange will grow almost any- 
where, and though it grows very slowly it gives first-class post 
material. Oaks are among the best lumber trees grown, also 
Norway spruce, chestnut, white pine, and fir are the best kinds to 
plant in regions where they will thrive. Every state of the Union 
is encouraging the planting of trees and the protecting of forests. 
The United States Department of Agriculture, through its de- 
partment entitled " Forest Service," is doing much to protect, 
promote, and stimulate an active interest in our forests. 



THE FARMER'S WOOD LOT 



383 



Culture and Management of Wood Lots. — Wood lots are 
started either by planting seeds or by setting the trees. If seeds 
are planted, a large number of trees may be started in a compara- 
tively small seed bed. When trees are about two years old, 
they may be planted into the permanent wood lot. The Forest 
Service recommends that, in most cases, trees be planted four 
feet apart each way. In growing forest trees, the best results 




Fig. 182. 



- Conservative lumbering. Young growth saved, brush piled to 
prevent fire. 



are obtained where the leaves of the trees will cover the soil as 
soon as possible. Forests frequently need cultivation for a few 
years. Such methods of pruning should be practiced as will cause 
trees to grow erect and tall. 

In the management of a wood lot, the following points may be 
observed : 

1 . In cutting out trees for firewood, choose only the unshapely, 
diseased trees and limbs. 

2. Young trees should not be cut, but left to grow for a later 
wood crop. 



384 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

3. All tops should be removed and burned. Rubbish becomes 
a hiding place for insects and provides an excellent condition 
for wood fires. 

4. Forests should never be thinned too much, for this causes 
the trees to grow too bushy. 

5. Stock must be kept out of the wood lot until the trees are 
large enough not to be injured. 

Summary. — The wood lot is of considerable economic im- 
portance, and should be considered as one of the regular farm 
crops. It may often be located on waste places. The varieties 
of trees planted vary with the purpose, kind of soil, and location 
available. Careful management of the wood lot the first four or 
five years is necessary for best results. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Mounting of Woods. — Have pupils collect and mount, on pasteboard, 
parts of limbs of all the useful forest trees found in the locality. Both a 
longitudinal and a cross section of each kind mounted should be shown. 
Limbs three inches long and about three-fourths inch in diameter are best 
suited for this work. The mountings made by all the pupils should be prac- 
tically uniform. 

2. Forest Trees and Wood Lot Forestry. — Name five forest trees growing 
in your locality which would yield themselves to " Farm Lot " forestry. 
Discuss the use and value of each kind and describe the kind of soil best 
adapted to its growth. 

3. Kinds of Timber and Fence Posts. — Name the kinds of timber used 
in making fence posts in your locality. What are different kinds of fence 
posts worth? What is the value of an acre of each kind of fence posts, 
provided 1275 posts are grown on an acre? 

4. Value of Lumber. — Find the selling value per one thousand feet of 
at least five kinds of lumber sold in your locality. 

5. Composition on the Wood Supply. — Write a two hundred word paper 
on " How Every Farmer May Aid in Keeping Up the Lumber Supply." 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

CHOOSING A FARM 

Farms are purchased for economic purposes and for the pur- 
pose of making homes. Both of these points are so important 
in the choice of a farm that Cato's advice given two thousand 
years ago may still be followed : " When you have decided to 
purchase a farm, be careful not to buy rashly ; do not spare your 
visits, and be not content with a single tour of inspection. The 
more you go, the more will the place please you if it is worth 
your attention. Give heed to the appearance of the neighborhood 
— a flourishing country should show its prosperity. When you 
go in look about, so that, when need be, you can find your way 
out." ^ 

The economic aspect, in purchasing a farm, is important. 
The farm should make a satisfactory home for every member of 
the family. The factors bearing upon these two points will be 
discussed in the following paragraphs. This brief treatise is 
general, and the statements made will not be without exceptions 
in many localities of the United States. 

Economic Aspects in Choosing a Farm. — The Soil. The 
kind, lay, and fertility of the soil are of greatest importance. 
The principles set forth in the chapters on soils will help in 
determining whether a soil has the proper character. The 
texture, structure, amount of organic matter, and the depth of 
the soil are important things to consider. Free use of a post 

Note to the Teacher : Work out data suggested at close of chapter. 
1 Warren : Farm Management. 
2C 385 



386 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 




hole digger, or soil auger, on every live acres of the farm, aids in 
this study. A depth of from 3 to 5 feet of the soil should be 
carefully examined. (Fig. 183.) A soil composed of about equal 
parts of clay and sand makes a good foundation. This with an 
additional supply of organic matter gives a desirable soil. Ex- 
amining the soil and the subsoil with the hand, and 
washing some of the soil to find its sand content, 
helps in gaining a proper estimate of its real pro- 
ductive value. 

The Farm Improvements. Warren says upon 
this point, " The site of the farm, with respect to 
the fields, the number and kind of buildings, fences, 
and orchard, will of course be carefully inspected. 
Chief attention should be given to the roofs, 
foundations, frames of buildings, and least atten- 
tion to paint. The arrangement for convenience 
in work is of importance. 

'' But one should be careful not to buy a farm 
Many Western men buy- 
The farms 
look cheap, because the buildings are worth more 
than the price asked. But there is no profit from 
buildings. In very many cases the farms never 
did pay. The early settler made his little income by lumbering, 
and used a generous amount of lumber for buildings. The 
lumber is gone ; the farms have such poor soils that they do not 
pay for working. Of course this does not apply to the thousands 
of Eastern farms that have rich soils, but good soils are not 
given away with a present thrown in." ^ 

Hunt states, " From an economic point of view it is possible 
that for general farming, it is not wise to invest more than one- 
' Warren : Farm Management. 



Fig. 183. — a 
soil auger made 
by welding a |- 
inch gas pipe to i r •- u mj' 

a li-inch wood merely for its buildmgs 

auger. An e.xcei- \^„ Eastern famis are buying buildings 

lent tool in Its ° J b o 

proper use in esti- 
mating the value 
of land. 



CHOOSING A FARM 387 

fourth the aggregate value of the farm in buildings of all kinds." 
Many farms have more capital invested in buildings than can be 
justified upon an economic basis. Farms with such necessary 
improvements in the way of buildings, fences, orchards, etc., all 
in good repair, can generally be purchased more cheaply than can 
an equal amount of land, plus the cost of putting on an equal 
amount of improvements. However, in regard to this matter 
there is no general rule, to which no exceptions can be laid down. 

Where a farm is supplied with buildings, it should be observed 
whether or not the buildings conform with the type of farming 
for which the farm is to be purchased. A chicken house is usually 
a poor corn bin or sheep stable. If buildings must be rebuilt, 
the cost of doing so must be carefully estimated before a farm 
is purchased. (See Exercise i.) 

Markets. Good markets are important to the successful 
operation of a farm. Dairy and truck farms should be within 
three or four miles of a railroad station, which is in direct line 
to a good market. Grain farms may be a little farther away 
from the market, and where grains are fed to livestock the farm 
may be still a little farther from the station. Dairying and 
vegetable gardening are hazardous occupations if the farms are 
removed from the trunk line of a railroad. Direct transportation 
facilities are important in choosing a farm. (See Exercise 2.) 

Roads. Kind of roads and methods of transportation affect 
materially the value of a farm. Good, level roads that are 
open all the year increase farm values wonderfully. Transport- 
ing a pound of material one mile on unpaved roads may require 
as much energy and cost as much as transporting ten pounds the 
same distance over a paved road. In other words, transportation 
over ten miles of good level roads may not cost any more than 
transporting the same goods over one mile of unpaved roads. 
Good roads bring the market nearer. 



388 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

Cooperation. Another factor that may well be considered is 
the spirit of cooperation in a locality. Cooperation in pur- 
chasing things needed about the farm and selling farm products 
is very desirable in any community. It is generally true that 
$io will buy more than ten times as much as will $i. Coopera- 
tive marketing is often very convenient and economical. One 
man may often haul the milk sold by ten or more dairymen 
living along one route. This saves time and labor. Machinery 
may be owned cooperatively. Farmers may cooperate to im- 
prove markets. Schools, churches, a library, and other valuable 
institutions may be had in a community which cooperates. 

Size of Farms. One of the important factors in the selection 
of a farm is its size. The type of farming to be practiced will 
influence the amount of land needed. For truck farming a few 
acres may be sufhcient. A larger farm is needed for grain farm- 
ing, and in stock production even larger farms may be more 
economical. The labor, the farm implements, and the number of 
horses needed to do the work on i6o acres is not much greater 
than that needed to farm 80 acres. Very small farms mean un- 
employment for both man and horse. The old saying, " Three 
acres and a cow " or " Three acres and liberty," usually means 
unemployment and a small income. While no general rule can 
be stated as to the relation of size of farms to profits, it may 
well be borne in mind that farms large enough to use labor- 
saving machinery and employ constantly horse and man labor 
are essential to success in farming. The size of a farm must be 
considered in choosing a farm. (See Exercise 3.) 

Choosing a Farm for a Home. — The healthfulness, the neigh- 
borhood, the privileges of the church, school, and community or- 
ganizations are very important in the choice of a farm, — even as 
important as are the factors influencing the economic aspects of a 
farm. Suitable social surroundings concern parents more than 



CHOOSING A FARM 



389 



the production of a crop. Providing such conditions in the rural 
communities that the boy and girl of the country are satisfied 
to hve in the country, is a problem yet to be solved in most 
rural communities. The two important factors in causing the 
boy and the girl to remain on the farm are : 

1 . An economic income from the farm so that the conveniences 
of life may be had at least to a comfortable degree. 

2. The building of such a home and community that the social 
wants of the family are supphed. The first of these points has 
been discussed in the above paragraphs. Some of the factors 
influencing the second will be mentioned in the following sections. 

HealthJ Illness. To choose a farm that does not provide health- 
ful conditions is to invite failure 
at once. The healthfulness of a 
home is all-important. The house 
should be located on an elevated, 
dry, well-drained spot. Low, 
swampy places are conducive to 
malaria, typhoid fever, and 
rheumatism. If an entire locality 
is unhealthful, it will require com- 
munity cooperation to remove the 
cause and improve the condi- 
tions. In the choice of a farm its conditions for maintaining 
and promoting healthfulness must be carefully considered. 

The Neighborhood. The moral standards, the progressiveness, 
the community spirit, and neighborliness are of vast importance 
in finally choosing a farm. Well-kept roads, schools, churches, 
homes, and farm improvements are indications of a desirable 
community. A high grade of stock and farms that are well 
planned and cultivated, characterize a good farmer, a good 
stockman, a good homemaker, and a desirable citizen and neigh- 




FiG. 184. — A landmark of learning. 
Better school buildings are being built 
to-day. 



390 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



bor. Farmers and farmers' children are compelled to mingle 
with their neighbors in cooperative farm work, in church, in 
school, and in other organizations, and it is important that neigh- 
borliness and social kindness and a brotherly spirit prevail. 

Schools. No one would purchase a farm in a locality where 
there are no schools. Schools enhance the value of lands, and 




Fig. 185. — A school garden, an impurtaiil lac (01 



nic living in country or city. 



are a great factor in the uplift of any community. To be able 
to locate near a town, village, or consolidated school may be 
worth from $5 to $10 an acre of land purchased. The con- 
solidated schools of Iowa, Ohio, Missouri, Minnesota, North 
and South Dakota, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana are very 
valuable to the communities in which they are located. Com- 
munity transportation of children to schools is successful (Fig, 
186) and fairly economical in many localities. 



CHOOSING A FARM 



391 



Churches. The opportunities for religious service are also 
important. The physical, intellectual, social, and religious 
development and training of children and adults are all essential. 
Often the schoolhouse is the center of all the social and religious 
functions of a community. The schoolhouse is public property 
and should be open for use to any gathering which has for its 
purpose the betterment of the community. The country church 
adds values which cannot be measured by money. In some 




Fig. 



■Conveying pupils to school. During wintt-r iiKuiths eluded 
wagons are used. 



instances it may be feasible in the construction of schoolhouses 
to add a room in which the community may have meetings of 
various kinds, — religious, educational, and social. Such a 
meeting place will help solve rural problems. 

The " Federated Church " represents a neighborly, brotherly, 
spiritually united community. The Federated Church is a 
landmark in the evolution of community development. Such 
a locahty is a good place for the establishment of a home. 

Social Gatherings. Literary clubs, debating societies, spelHng 
matches, farmers' organizations, are worth much to any com- 



392 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



munity ; they foster community cooperation and help the 
community to get what it wants. (See Exercises 4 and 5.) 

Summary. — In choosing a farm the economic and home- 
making aspects are important. The fertility and productive- 
ness of the soil, the farm improvements, the markets, and the 
size of the farm are conditions that affect the choice of a farm 
from an economic standpoint. The healthfulness, good neigh- 
bors, school, church, and social opportunities and facilities affect 
the choice of a farm from a home-making standpoint. The 
choice of a farm may either bring success or failure. 



LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Approximate the Per Cent of Money Invested in Farm Buildings. — 
Have pupils determine from several farmers the value of their farm buildings. 
The value of separate buildings should be itemized. At the same time the 
value of the land should be asked for. The buildings represent what per 
cent of the total value of the land and buildings? Discuss the value of 
dififerent buildings in their connection with the type of farming practiced. 

2. To Study the Distance to Market. — Have each pupil determine the 
distance traveled to and from market upon the basis of the distance they 
live from market, if they go to market daily. Find the cost of a year's 
travel to market if it costs 1 5 cents a mile to transport the material they carry. 

3. To Study the Size of Farms. — Have pupils find the size of all the 
farms in the school district, and record as follows: 



Name of Farmer 




Kind of Farming 



Discuss the size cf at least two farms as to the type of farming practiced. 
For example, compare truck farming with general farming. 



CHOOSING A FARM 393 

4. The Community. — Write a two hundred word essay on the locahty, 
church, school, social organizations, and privileges, and healthfulness of the 
community. 

6. Score Two Farms according to the Following Score Card. — Pupils 
copy score card in a permanent notebook. 

Score Card for Farms ^ 

Points 

1. Location 

1. Healthfulness of surroundings 5 

2. Neighbors 5 

3. Schools 5 

4. Churches 5 

2. Equipment 

1. Size of farms (as adapted to farming) 5 

2. Natural advantages (wood, water drainage) .... 5 

3. Improvements 

1. Ditches, tile drains, buildings 5 

2. Site of farmstead 5 

3. Shape and size of fields 5 

3. Production 

1. Soil, natural fertility 10 

2. Condition (freedom from stones, stumps, weeds, and 

waste land) 10 

3. Topography (as affecting erosion, and ease of cultivation) 10 

4. Climate (annual rainfall, temperature, frosts) .... 5 

4. Transportation and markets 

1. Wagon roads (kind, and condition) 5 

2. Local markets (kind, and distance) 10 

3. Shipping facilities 5 

Total 100 

1 Boss : Farm Management. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
PLANNING THE FARM ^ 

Reasons for Planning the Farm. — The farm plan is generally 
determined by accident. Irregular pastures and fields are, 
therefore, very common. Fields are unequal in size, and are 
not suited to a well-organized system of crop rotation, or economy 
of labor. The reasons for planning a farm are as follows : 

1. Fields of equal size should be laid out. This is essential 
to crop rotations. 

2. Regular fields and pastures require less fencing, and can 
be tilled more economically. 

3. Farms are planned so that all pastures and fields are easily 
accessible. 

Shape of Fields. — Square fields require less fencing, but more 
time to plow and cultivate. Long fields are plowed, cultivated, 
and harvested with less energy than square fields, and a triangular 
field is not prepared, sown, plowed, and harvested as cheaply as 
a long field. Warren says : " The time required to plow an acre 
in a triangular field averaging 7 rods wide was found to be 6 
hours and 51 minutes. The time for a rectangular field of this 
width was 6 hours and 23 minutes." 

Size of Fields. — Large fields are more economically plowed, 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Twice as many pieces of cardboard (about 16x16 inches square) as 
there are pupils. 

1 See exercises at close of chapter. 
394 



PLANNING THE FARM 



395 



tilled, and harvested than are small fields. Larger machinery, 
drawn by three or four horses, all handled by one man, reduces 
the cost per acre tilled. If the same amount of machinery is 
purchased to till lo acres that may be used to till 40 acres, the 
cost of tools used per acre is increased. 

A farm laid out according to the following plan is adapted to a 
good system of crop rotation : ' 



160 Rods 



A 1904 


Corn 




B 1904 Oats, manure 


1905 


Barley sowed to timothy 


1905 Corn 




and clover 




1906 Barley seeded to timothy 


1906 


Meadow 




and clover 


1907 


Pasture 




1907 Meadow 


1908 


Pasture 




1908 Pasture 


1909 


Fodder 




1909 Pasture 


1910 


Oats, manure 20 A 






19 10 Fodder corn 20 A. 


C 1904 


Fodder corn 






D 1904 Pasture 


1905 


Oats 






1905 Fodder corn 


1906 


Corn 






1906 Oats, manure 


1907 


Barley sowed to timothy 




1907 Barley seeded to timothy 




and clover 






and clover 


1908 


Meadow 






1908 Meadow 


1909 


Pasture 






1909 Clover 


1910 


Pasture 


20 A. 




1910 20 A. 


H Sweet 


corn 2^ 


Barn 


E 1904 Pasture 










1905 Pasture 


I Roots 


2h 






1906 Corn 

1907 Oats 

1908 Corn 






J Sorghum 2J 






1909 Barley seeded to timothy 






House 




and clover 






K MiUet 


2\ 


20 A. 




1910 Clover 20 A. 


F 1904 


Meadow 






C 


r 1904 Barley seeded to timothy 


1905 


Pasture 




and clover 


1906 


Pasture 




1905 Meadow 


1907 


Fodder corn 




1906 Pasture 


1908 


Oats, manur 


; 


1907 Pasture 


1909 


Corn 




1908 Fodder 


1910 


Barley seede 


d to timothy 


1909 Oats, manure 




and clover 


20 A, 


1910 Corn 20 A. 



^ Bulletin No. 236, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



396 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

This farm is well planned for a six-crop rotation extending 
over 7 years. The fields are well arranged in size and shape 
for economical production. The farmstead and barns are con- 
nected with each field by a narrow lane, making all fields easily 
accessible. 

The above plan not only has all the advantages accruing to it 
due to rotation of crops, but also has the following advantages : 

1. In such a system there is seldom a complete failure. One 
or more of the six crops will bring good returns. When only one 
crop is attempted, there is often a complete failure. 

2. This plan means more steady and constant employment of 
man and horse labor. It has been estimated that the average 
farm horse in the Northern States works on the average for the 
year only about 3 hours a day. But at certain seasons of the 
year he works 10 or 12 hours, and at that time the farmer seldom 
has enough horses to do the required work. With a properly 
planned cropping system it will be possible to distribute the 
horse labor to secure twice the amount of work per horse, and 
thus reduce by one-half the number of horses required to farm a 
given area. 

3. In the above-suggested plan the income is distributed 
throughout the year. The wheat farmers of the wheat states 
have an income only at one season of the year. This is true of 
any one-crop system. Where diversified crops are produced, 
the necessities and comforts of life are more certain to obtain 
every day in the year than where only one kind of farming 
is attempted. 

Distance to Fields. — Locating farmsteads in the center of a 
farm reduces the distance to the fields of the farm. The dis- 
tance from the house to each of the fields and back, on the farm 
illustrated above, is 640 rods. But if the house were located at 
the middle of one side, one trip to each field and back would 



PLANNING THE FARM 



397 



make a distance of 1 120 rods, a difference of 480 rods. With the 
barn located in the central portion of the farm, four fields are 
immediately accessible, but if it were located at B only two fields 
are directly accessible. 

Replanning Farms. — Many unorganized farms may be re- 
organized to good advantage. The following plan shows an 
unorganized farm : 

160 Rods 



Meadow 12 
acres 


Grain 18 acres 


Meadow 10 
acres 


Grass 
15 acres 






Pasture 20 \ 
acres 1 


Grain 
21 acres 


Corn 27 acres 








Grain 27 acres 




Farmstead 10 I 
acres '< 



A Poorly Organized Farm. 



398 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



This farm is poorly planned because the fields are unequal 
in size, some very small and several of them almost square ; 
although streams and other surface features, and roads, do not 
interfere in making the plan. The following diagram shows the 
same farm after it was reorganized. Compare the two plans. 



1 60 Rods 



120 rods 

Meadow 
30 acres 




40 rods 

Pasture 
30 acres 


Grain seeded to grass 
30 acres 






Corn 30 acres 


; Grain 30 acres 


Farmstead 
10 acres 



Same Farm Reorganized.^ 
^Bulletin No. 236, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



PLANNING THE FARM 399 

Although the reorganized farm requires a little more fencing, 
its advantages over the unorganized plan are evident when it 
comes to the question of tilling. 

Summary. — Farms should be planned. To arrange fields so 
that they are about equal in size is important in the production 
of crops and in rotation systems. Long rectangular fields are 
more cheaply cultivated. If the house and farm buildings are 
located near the center of the farm, the fields are more easily 
accessible. Many farms may be replanned to advantage. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Estimating the Cost of Fencing a Farm. — Find the amount of fences 
required to fence the fields indicated in the first farm plan of this chapter. 
Find the cost to fence all the fields if fence costs sixty-five cents per rod. 

2. Mapping a Farm. — Make an outHne map to scale, showing all fences, 
streams, and buildings of some farm. Show in the same drawing the crops 
that have been grown in the different fields for several years past. 

3. Reorganizing and Replanning a Farm. — Revise the plan of the 
farm in Exercise 2, so that it can be tilled more economically, and is 
adapted to a well-arranged rotation of crops. 

4. Estimating the Cost of Man and Horse Labor on a Farm. — Figure 
the number of days of man and horse labor required to grow one season's 
crops on the farm of the first figure given in this chapter. (Include days for 
plowing, harrowing, harvesting, etc.) If man labor is worth $1.50 per day, 
and horse labor is worth $.50 per day, what is the cost of labor on the farm? 



CHAPTER XXX 

FARM BOOKKEEPING 

Reasons for Bookkeeping on the Farm. — Bookkeeping on the 
farm has the following advantages : 

1. The farmer may know whether he is making or losing, 
whether his assets are increasing or decreasing. 

2. If books are kept, the farmer may know just what each 
particular line of farming is doing. He knows whether it is. 
increasing or decreasing his profits. Often farmers think that a 
certain Une of farming is profitable when it really is not ; and 
conversely, often the stock or crops they think are losing money 
may be the most profitable. 

3. Farm bookkeeping makes farming systematic. In this 
way farm records are as important to the farmer as banking 
records are to the banker. 

4. It will bring larger dividends for the amount of time spent 
upon it than an equal time spent upon any other farm operation. 

What Books to Keep. — All bookkeeping should be simple. A 
definite plan should be followed, including the following points : 

1. An inventory. 

2. Accounts of different crops. 

3. Accounts of different kinds of stock. 

4. Accounts of the poultry. 

5. Accounts of the orchard, garden, and pasture. 

Note to the Teacher : The materials needed to do the Laboratory Ex- 
ercises suggested at the close of this chapter are : 

Forms on which pupils can make an inventory of a farm, farm receipts 

and expenditures. 

400 



FARM BOOKKEEPING 



401 



The Farm Inventory. — An inventory taken yearly of the 
farm stock, poultry, crops, buildings, and machinery is the most 
important of all the farm records. This farm inventory may be 
taken at any time of the year. Some farmers take their inven- 
tory January first ; others may prefer to take theirs in March, 
April, or May. At the close of the year another inventory should 
be taken. Values placed upon things in the inventory should 
be average values. To put the values too high or too low defeats 
the purpose of an inventory. 



Sample Farm Inventory — April i 





No. 


Rate 


1917 


1918 


1919 


1920 


1921 


Land .... 


160 A. 
100 A. 


$50.00 
52.00 


$8000 


$5200 








Horses . . . 


5 
4 


108.00 
112.00 


540 


448 








Colts .... 

















Continue this method for dairy cattle, sheep, swine, poultry, 
farm machinery, farm products, corn, wheat, oats, hay, etc. 
The divisions and topics included in the farm inventory depend 
on local conditions and individual farmers. Itemizing machinery 
will depend upon the taste of the individual farmer. Taking the 
inventory in considerable detail may prove satisfactory in later 
years. By the above outline, inventories may be kept for five 
successive years. (See Exercise i.) 

2D 



402 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



3- 



Another type of inventory is 


the follov^ing: 


1 


Real estate: 






Land (i6o acres at $50.00) 


$8 


1,000.00 


Improvements : 






40 rods tile drain at $3.00 




1 20.00 


240 rods woven wire fence at 70 


i 


168.00 


Buildings : 






House 




! ,000.00 


Barn 


1 


:, 500.00 


Other buildings 




800.00 


Live stock : 






Four horses at $175.00 




700.00 


Ten cows at $60.00 




600.00 


Six brood sows at $20.00 




1 20.00 


Twenty sheep at $8.00 




160.00 


Seventy-five hens at 40^ 




30.00 


Implements and tools : 






One^ plow 




12.00 


One grain drill 




45.00 


(List each machine on the farm as 


above.) 




Tools. (List separately all tools valued at $2.00 




or more. Those under $2.00 may be included 




in a lump sum as hand tools.) 




20.00 


Operating capital : 






Check account at bank 




72.00 


Cash in pocket 




22.50 


Feed and supplies : 






300 bushels oats at 305* 




90.00 


Two tons bran at $22.00 




44.00 


Twenty tons hay at $7.00 




140.00 


Two bushels clover seed at $9.00 




• 18.00 



4,300.00 



1,610.00 



77.00 



94-50 



292.00 



$14,661.50 



Farm Receipts. — The income of the farm may be kept in 

different forms. The following is suggestive for the income from 

chickens : 

1 Boss : Farm Management. 



Egg Record — Year 191 7 



Date 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


April 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


I 


















































2 


















































3 


















































4 


















































5 
6 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


7 


















































8 


















































9 
10 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


II 






— 


— 


— 


— 


— 







— 


__ 




: 


: 


— 




— 


— 








I 





z 




12 




13 
14 


— 


IS 
















































16 


















































17 


















































18 








r 










































19 


















































20 


















































21 


















































22 


















































23 
















! 
































24 


















































25 


















































26 




— 




— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 




27 






28 


















































29 


















































30 

31 
Total 
Dozen 
Value 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 



403 



404 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



The above gives a detailed record for the poultry flock for the 
year. Receipts for fowls that are sold may be recorded in the 
above table. If studied with the inventory, it will give a fair 
notion of the profit from hens. 

Records of dairy cows and of the herd may be kept in a similar 
way, with sUght changes. No up-to-date dairyman will handle 
a herd without keeping each cow's record. For suggestions on 
keeping records of the dairy, turn to the chapter on dairying. 

Receipts of other farm products may be recorded in the simplest 
fashion possible. The following is one way in which it may be 
kept. 



Date 



Kind and Amoitnt Sold 



Price 



Value 



In this table all receipts may be summarized for the year, and 
the total income for the year be found. (See Exercise 2.) 

Farm Expenditures. — To keep an accurate record of farm 
expenditures is just as important as to keep the farm receipts. 
Monthly expenditures for groceries, clothing, feed, and imple- 
ments should be kept. The following form may aid in keeping 
this record : 



FARM BOOKKEEPING 



405 



Date 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apr. 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


I 


























2 


























3 


























4 


























S 


























6 


























7 


























8 
























9 


! 


/ 




















10 


! 






















II 


i 






















12 


























13 


























14 


























IS 


























16 


























17 


























18 


























19 


























20 


























21 


























22 
























23 


























24 






















\ 




25 


























26 
























27 


























28 


























29 


























30 


























31 


























Total ex- 
penditure 



























4o6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

If an inventory has been carefully taken, and the yearly income 
and expenditure are known, the financial standing may be easily 
figured. If the inventory remained the same, and the total in- 
come for the year was $980 and the expenditure $590, then the 
financial gain would be the difference between $980 and $590, or 
$390. So if the inventory remains the same, the profits or losses 
may be found by subtracting the expenditures from the receipts. 
If the inventory increases, the increase may be added to the 
profits. If it decreases, it should be subtracted from the income. 

These simple suggestions in farm bookkeeping will help in 
putting the farm practices on a better business footing. (See 
Exercises 3 and 4.) 

Summary. — Farm inventories taken yearly are the most im- 
portant records a farmer can keep. Good judgment should be 
exercised in placing estimates on the value of things recorded in 
the inventory. Farm receipts will show in a general way the 
profit from various farm operations. Keeping a record of ex- 
penditures is also worth while. If the inventory remains the 
same, the receipts and expenditures will show quickly the finan- 
cial standing of the farm. This is as important to the farmer 
as it is to the banker. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. To Take an Inventory of a Farm. — Take an inventory of some farm, 
according to the plan above suggested. Record the inventory under dif- 
ferent headings, as shown in the paragraph on the farm inventory. 

2. Farm Receipts. — Keep the income of a farm for a month. Pupil 
and teacher may devise a plan for keeping the receipts. 

3. Farm Expenditures. — Have pupils keep in a suitable form the ex- 
penditures in their home for one month. Compare receipts and expenditures 
for the month. 

4. Per Cent Invested in Different Parts of the Farm. — From the inven- 
tory taken in Exercise i, figure the per cent of money invested in each part 
of the farm. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
FARM LABOR 

Economy of Farm Labor. — It has been estimated that the 
average farm horse in the Northern States works 3.5 hours a 
day. The average number of hours worked by the farmers and 
their hired hands does not exceed more than 5 hours a day. If 
it costs 35 cents to keep a horse a day, his labor is. worth 10 cents 
an hour. If man's labor is worth $1.50 a day, his labor costs 
30 cents an hour. If we double the number of hours worked a 
day on an average, and if labor can be employed profitably, the 
cost of labor is reduced one-half. 

O. R. Johnson ^ found that the average number of hours worked 
a day by horses on three different farms was 3.9 hours, and by 
man 9.9 hours. He also found that men on these farms worked 
3272.3 hours a year, and that each horse worked 1216.6 hours a 
year. 

Factors that Prevent an Equal Distribution of Farm Labor. — 
The seasonal nature of farm work is one of the greatest factors 
affecting the constant employment of horse and man labor. 
Most of the production and harvesting of crops comes in the 
summer season. Horses and men are both worked hard during 
the summer months. In winter months men and horses are 
idle a large part of the time. To illustrate the amount of horse 

Note to the Teacher : Follow suggestions at close of chapter. 

1 Missouri Bulletin, No. j6. 
407 



4o8 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



and man labor in the production of a timothy hay crop, the fol- 
lowing diagram is given : ^ 



JAN. 



FEB. 



100 HR. 200 HR. 300 KR. 400 HR. 500 HP. 600 HR. 



MAR. 



APRIL< 



MAY 



JUNE 



JULY 



:^^^^:^y;y;»»»^»S^ 



ID 



^1 



AUG. 



SEPT. 



OCT. 



NOV. 



DEC. 



^'j^^y^^y;^ s;;^;^^;^^'^^ y^ ^-y^y^^ ^^^y:^y:::';>:S^' 



ZZl 



^^^m^s^ 



Graph 12. Hours of labor given to 67 acres of timothy hay. The upper line in each 
month represents man labor ; the lower, horse labor. The black and the gray lines indicate 
time given to seeding, haying, etc., and the white lines, manuring, baling, marketing, etc. 

1 All data for graphs, unless otherwise stated, are taken from Warren's Farm 
Management. 



FARM LABOR 409 

Analyzing the above graph, we find that the number of hours 
of man labor given to the production of 67 acres of timothy hay 
was 1025, and that more than half of this labor was required 
during the month of July. The amount of horse labor required 
to produce the 67 acres of timothy hay was 11 25 hours. Al- 
most half of this time (475 hr.) was used in the month of 
July. If this were the only crop produced, the labor of man 
and horse is employed about one-half of the time. This means 
unemployment, and that the cost of both man and horse labor is 
doubled. 

The demands for both horse and man labor are greater in the 
summer months. Practically all the crops need a great deal 
more attention in summer than during other seasons of the year. 

Another factor that prevents equal distribution of farm labor 
is the unequal sizes of fields. To devote about the same acreage 
to the same crops from year to year has a tendency to make farm 
labor more stable. The farmer can plan his labor fairly well if 
he tends 40 acres respectively of corn, wheat, oats, and alfalfa 
hay. But if he omits one of these crops for a year, his general 
"scheme of labor may become entirely unbalanced. 

A third factor that prevents an equal distribution of farm 
labor is the kind of farming practiced. As was illustrated above, 
timothy farming requires about half of the labor in the month 
of July, or, in other words, half of the work must be done in one- 
twelfth of the year. Similarly, wheat producers, cattle growers, 
corn raisers, and other farmers producing one product have most 
of their work during a few months of the year. 

Working only a few months of the year means high-priced 
labor. If a man works only one-twelfth of the time, his labor 
must be rated high. If 2400 hours constitutes a year's work, 
worth fifteen cents an hour, his labor is worth $360, but to pay 
$360 for a month's labor of thirty days, say of ten hours each, 



4IO 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



makes the cost of labor $1.20 an hour. Horse labor may be 
figured likewise. To feed, stable, and care for a horse for 365 
days when he works only a few days, makes the cost of horse 
labor very high. (See Exercises i and 2.) 

Distribution of Labor with Different Crops. — In the produc- 
tion of oats, April, July, and August are the busy months. 
Sowing time is in April, and July and August are the months of 
harvest. The following graphs give an idea of the distribution 
of horse and man labor in the cultivation of stated amounts of 
several crops : 



100 HR. 200 HR. 300 HR. 400 HR. 500 HR. 600 HR. 



JAN. 
FEB. 
MAR. 

APR1L< 

MAY 
JUNE 



^^^^^ 



Graph 13. Hours of labor given to 23 acres of oats. The upper line in each month 
represents man labor ; the lower, horse labor. The black and the gray lines represent time 
given to sowing, harvesting, etc. ; the white, to threshing and plowing. 



JAN. 

FEB. 

MAR. 

APRIL 

MAY 

JUNE 

JULY 1 

AUG. 1 

/ 



SEPT. 

OCT. 
NOV. 



100 HR. 200 HR. 300 HR. 400 HR. 500 HR. 600 HR 



x\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\'^v\\\\\\\\\\\\\\V\te,V\\^^^^ 



^^^^^ 



Graph 14. Hours of labor given to 23 acres of wheat. The upper line in each 
month represents man labor ; the lower, horse labor. The black and the gray lines repre- 
sent time given to harvesting, threshing, etc. ; the white line, to plowing, etc. 



100 HR. 200 HR. 300 HK. 400 HR. 500 HR. 600 HR. 



JAN. 
FEB. 
MAR. 



SEPT. 

OCT. 

NOV. 
DEC. 



^^^^^^^^S 



t_ m uz: 



Graph 15. Hours of labor given to 11 acres of potatoes. The upper line in each 
month represents man labor; the lower, horse labor; the black and the gray lines, time 
given to planting, cultivating, digging, etc. ; the white, plowing and marketing. 

411 



412 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

100 HR. 200 HR. 300 HR. 400 HR. 500 HR. 600 HR. 



JAN. 














FEB. 














MAR. 

aprilJ 


1 
J 












MAY } 


s**;;;*^!^*:^ 




^^ 










JUNE J 

JULY J 
AUG. 


^^\^Vs\\\^'S1 












^ 












SEPT. J 
OCT. 


^\^^S^■;^:;;;;^^i^ 


^■i-^V,-^ 










NOV. 














DEC. 


- 













Graph i6. Hours of labor given to 14 acres of silage corn. The upper line in each 
month represents man labor ; the lower, horse labor ; black and gray lines represent plant- 
ing, cultivating, harvesting; white represent plowing. 

From the foregoing graphs it will be observed that, in crop 
production, the greatest part of both man and horse labor is 
demanded in the summer months. 

Farming is a seasonal occupation, an occupation that can be 
carried on better in one season of the year than another. It is 
important that the farm be managed so that every season shall 
have suitable and paying work. 

Professor O. R. Johnson^ has tabulated the man and horse 
labor requirements of common crops on the basis of hours for 
each acre production. And for the crops, oats, wheat, timothy, 
and corn he gives us the following interesting data : 

1 In Bulletin No. 6 of the Agricultural College, Columbia, Missouri. 



FARM LABOR 



413 



Man and Horse Labor Requirements of Common Crops, per 
Acreage Production 





Oats 


Wheat 


Timothy 


Corn 




Man, 


Horse, 


Man, 


Horse, 


Man, 


Horse, 


Man, 


Horse, 




Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Hr. 


Jan. 














•55 


.28 


Feb. . 














.48 


.10 


March . 


2.92 


6.65 










•15 




April . 


1.32 


2.93 










1.84 


4^57 


May . 


.26 


•79 










6.38 


14.09 


June . 


I. II 


.87 


3-2 


3-2 


.48 


■63 


6.72 


10.91 


July . 


3.50 


3-69 


6.4 


6.5 


6.02 


9.02 


2.14 


3-25 


Aug. . 


1. 16 


1.29 


1.62 


3-1 






1.84 


1. 17 


Sept. . 


•17 


.21 


2.70 


5-1 






5-03 


i^73 


Oct. . 






4.2 


7-3 






•78 


•72 


Nov. . 






.26 


•S 






3^14 


1.77 


Dec. . 








25-7 


6.50 




2.55 
31.60 


1.61 


Totals 


10.44 


16.42 


18.38 


9-65 


40.20 



This table likewise shows the distribution of labor required 
to produce an acre of the crop indicated. Of course the amount 
of horse and man labor will vary with seasons, location, and 
type of implement used. But it may be concluded that with 
the production of the above crops neither horse nor man labor 
can be steadily employed. (See Exercise 3.) 

Two Examples of Fairly Constant Distribution of Farm Labor. 
— The first illustration is taken from the 1911 United States 
Yearbook of Agriculture. It shows the estimated distribution 
of labor on a 240-acre farm, where 80 acres each of corn, wheat, 
timothy, and clover hay are grown. (Graph 17.) 
, The months are divided into the ten-day periods. One man 
and four horses did all the work, except a little labor that was 



414 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



employed in June, July, August, September, and November as 
indicated. In the farm there were six fields of forty acres each, 
and the rotation was corn, corn, wheat, wheat, hay, hay. The 
constant distribution of farm labor will be noted. 



DAYS 

40 



30 



MARCH 1 APRIL 1 MAY 


JUNE 


JULY 


AUGU8T 


SEPT. 


OCT. 


NOV. 


DEC. 1 




EXTRA MAN DAYS 


















































- 




RE 


GL 


LA 


^N 


l\M 


J DAY 


S 


iii 




























pfe 




M 


AN IJABO 


R 
















(ONE 


MAN) 


W 
























„,, 




1 

1 

i 










i 














~ 








I 






















...,,^ 
















mJ\ 


„„ 








■ 








m 
















































































































































) 


{0 

(F 




>E 
=i 1- 


U 

OF 


SE 


DF 

S) 
































l| JT^ 










■ 


1 ■ 














































■ 
















J 







20 



10 



60 



40 



30 



20 



10 



Graph 17. Estimated distribution of labor on 80 acres each of corn, wheat, and timothy 
hay, and of clover hay in the latitude of Missouri. One man and four horses regularly em- 
ployed. Extra man labor at harvest. Rotation : corn, corn, wheat, wheat, hay, hay. 



The second illustration is taken from Warren's Farm Manage- 
ment. It shows the distribution of man labor on eighteen cows 
that are being milked, and eleven other cows. (Graph 18.) 



FARM LABOR 



415 



HOURS 




J^n. Feb. /^AR. ApR. M^y June Ju\>( Av<^. Sept. Oct iVov. Deo. 

Graph 18. Distribution of man labor on 18 cows and 11 other cattle. White is milk 

hauling. 

From this graph it will be observed that dairying furnishes 
constant employment the year round. The conclusions that 
are drawn should pertain to farm labor. 

Factors Helping in the Distribution of Labor. — The preceding 
paragraphs illustrate that diversification of farm operations 
tends to distribute farm labor. 

Planning work and keeping a daily schedule of work helps 
distribute farm labor. A well-planned labor schedule will in- 
crease the efficiency of farm work from 5 to 10 per cent. As a 
rainy day schedule the following may be suggestive : clean grain, 
test seed corn and other seed for germination ; repair gates, 
doors, windows ; oil machinery, wagons, carriages, and harnesses ; 
paint interior of buildings, hayracks ; sharpen tools and imple- 
ments ; clean and whitewash poultry houses ; prepare feeds ; 
bring farm accounts up to date ; and read agricultural papers 
and books. 

The planning of work to cover an entire year is one of the 
greatest aids in the distribution of farm labor. With a well- 



4i6 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

planned " labor schedule " the congestion of certain seasons 
may be largely avoided. 

A man who plans his work well does not have to get his plow 
sharpened or fixed on the day when he can plow. The binder, 
cultivator, and other tools will be ready for work when the 
right time arrives to use them. Seed corn will have been tested 
several weeks before it is to be used. Overhauling, repairing, 
and other work may be done at odd times and will not interfere 
with the work of planting, harvesting, and cultivating important 
crops. Preparing bins and granaries will precede their use a 
week or two. A work schedule will economize labor. Johnson 
says, " With a well planned labor schedule the manager will 
never send the men to cut brush along the fence rows when the 
binder must be overhauled for wheat cutting to-morrow, or the 
day after, or the granaries made ready for threshing. When 
planting time begins, the first day or two of good weather will 
not be wasted in getting seed cleaned or getting the machinery 
in running order." ^ (See Exercises 4 and 5.) 

Summary. — Farm labor is often not well distributed. The 
fact that men and horses work so few hours during the year 
increases the value of their labor, but decreases the opportunities 
of the farm.er to do a great amount of work. Most farm crops 
demand the labor devoted to them in the summer season. Dairy- 
ing and diversified farming tend to distribute farm labor, and 
give constant employment — two desirable points in farm 
management. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Study of Farm Labor. — Have pupils bring a statement of the actual 
number of hours a farmer worked for one week. If his labor is worth $360 
a year, what is the value of his labor an hour according to the answer to the 
first sentence of this exercise ? 

1 Johnson : Bulletin No. 6, Missouri Station. 



FARM LABOR 



417 



2. An Estimate of the Horse and Man Labor Required to Till and Harvest 
Some Crop. — Pupils are to secure from some farmer an estimate of the 
number of days (reduced to hours) of both horse and man labor necessary 
to produce • some crop per acre which he plans to raise the following year. 
The distribution of labor shoidd be graphed by the pupils according to its 
distribution by months. 

3. Estimating Cost of Man and Horse Labor to Produce an Acre of 
Different Crops. — If man labor is worth 18 cents an hour, and horse labor 
is worth 9 cents an hour, what is the cost of producing an acre of oats, of 
wheat, and of corn, according to Johnson's data? 

4. Arranging a Labor Schedule for a Rainy Day. — Name six or eight 
things that may be done during a rainy day. 

5. To Study the Distribution of Labor on a Dairy Farm. — If there is a 
dairy farm in the neighborhood, have the proprietor estimate by months the 
number of hours of man and horse labor required to care for it a year. The 
results should be illustrated by a graph. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

THE RELATION OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY TO 
PERMANENT AGRICULTURE 

The virgin soils of our land have been exploited and robbed 
of their plant nutrients to such an extent that Conservation of 
Soil Fertility Congresses, our Agricultural Colleges and Experi- 
ment Stations, the United States Government itself, and all 
informed farmers have turned their thoughts and efforts to 
such farm practices as will prevent the further exhaustion of 
our soils. Some principles pertaining to the conservation of 
our soil have already been studied in the chapters on soils, 
field crops, animal husbandry, and farm management. It is 
not the purpose of this chapter to convey the notion that animal 
husbandry is the only way of maintaining soil fertility, nor is it 
urged that every farm should be a stock farm. For there are 
many other farm practices which help to conserve our soils, 
increase our crop yields, and tend to make our people happy 
and prosperous, and are conducive to permanent agriculture. 

The purpose of this chapter is to indicate how animals tend 
to make American agriculture more permanent. Some of the 
benefits which may accrue from animal husbandry farming, 
and which make our agriculture more permanent, are the follow- 
ing : 

1. Animals help in maintaining the fertility of the soil. 

2. Stock farming tends to a better system of crop rotation. 

3. Feeds that otherwise would be partially wasted are utilized. 

418 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 



419 



4. Animals manufacture raw materials into a marketable 
product. 

5. Stock farming gives more constant employment. 

6. Stock often increase the profits. 

7. The leading nations in their periods of greatest prosperity 
have been producers of animals. 

8. Animal husbandry tends toward a progressive agriculture 
and more intelligent farming. 

These topics will be discussed in the order named. 

Animals Aid in Maintaining the Fertility of the Soil. — Every 
schoolboy or schoolgirl or farmer who reads this knows that 
constant cropping and selling the crops tends to make the soil 
less productive from year to year. Grain and hay crops, if 
sold from the farm, remove plant foods as follows : 





Fertilizing Constituents in One Ton 


Fertility 


Manurial 


Crop 








Vat ttf 




Nitrogen, 


Phosphoric 


Potash, 


PER Ton 


Ton 




Pounds 


Acid, Pounds 


Pounds 






Dent corn (grain) 


32.4 


13-8 


8.0 


$ 6.85 


$ 5-48 


Wheat .... 


39-6 


17.2 


10.6 


8.83 


6.74 


Oats .... 


39-6 


16.2 


II. 2 


8.42 


6.74 


Timothy hay . . 


19.9 


6.2 


27.2 


5.20 


4.16 


Red clover hay . 


41.0 


7.8 


32-6 


9-36 


7-49 


Oat straw . . . 


11.6 


4.2 


30.0 


3-78 


3.02 


Corn silage . . 


6.8 


3-2 


8.8 


I.8I 


1-45 


Cottonseed meal, 












choice . . . 


141. 2 


53-4 


36.2 


29.63 


23.70 



From this table it will be observed that if two thousand pounds 
of dent corn be taken from a farm, 32.4 pounds of nitrogen, 
13.8 pounds phosphoric acid, and 8.0 pounds of potash are taken 
from the soil. These ingredients sell at an average of 18.0, 4.5, 
and 5.0 cents per pound, respectively, when purchased in com- 



420 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



mercial fertilizers. At this rate a ton of corn removes $6.85 
worth of soil fertility. It has been found by experimentation 
that when feed is fed the average animal, 80 per cent of the 
food nutrients in the feed are voided in the manurial product. 
The manurial value given in the last column of the above table 
is in each case 80 per cent of the fertility value of the food named. 
The manurial value of feed stuffs varies, as the table indicates, 
with the composition of feeding stuffs. The table deserves close 
study. 

When animals or animal products are taken from the farm, 
much less fertility is removed ; and especially is this true when 
the fertility value of the feed out of which the finished product 
is made, is compared to the animal product sold. This par- 
ticular point is too difffcult to present here. However, the 
fertilizing constituents of a few animal products are as follows : 





Fertilizing Constituents per Ton 


Fertility 

Value per 

Ton 


Manurial ■ 




Nitrogen, 
Pounds 


Phosphoric 
Acid, Pounds 


Potash, 
Pounds 


Value per 
Ton 


Fat pig ... . 
Fat ox . . . . 
Milk .... 
Butter .... 


35-4 

46.6 

1 1.6 

2.4 


13.0 

31.0 

4.0 

0.8 


2.8 
2.6 

3-4 
0.8 


^7.10 

9.96 

2-43 

•51 


$1.94 



Compare this table with the preceding one. A ton of pigs 
remove $7.10 worth of fertility and dent corn $6.85 of fertility. 
When the fact is recalled that it requires from five to six tons of 
corn to make one ton of pork, and that 80 per cent of its ferti- 
lizing value is returned to the soil, we may conclude that animal 
husbandry tends to maintain soil fertility. It has been summed 
up thus : " A farmer selling hay sells in the form of fertilizer 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 421 

value, one half as much as he receives ; if he sells pork, he re- 
ceives twenty times as much for it as the value of the fertilizers 
contained in it ; if milk, forty times ; and if butter, one 
thousand times." ^ 

See the preceding chapters, and especially the chapters on 
dairying, swine production, and sheep raising, on the relation 
of animal husbandry to the maintenance of soil fertility. (Also 
read the chapter on barnyard manures.) (See Exercise i.) 

Stock Farming Tends to a Better System of Crop Rotation. — 
Where grain farming is practiced, only one or two crops are 
usually produced. Such a practice caused our soils to become 
less productive. The United States Yearbooks clearly indicate 
that the acreage yields of the leading American farm crops be- 
came less and less up to about 1900, and from then on our 
acreage yields have been gradually increasing. The increase in 
crop yields the last fifteen years has been due to better methods 
of seed selection, seed testing, better methods of cultivation, 
rotation of crops, etc. The decrease in acreage yields previous 
to 1900 was due to a system of grain farming in which only one 
or two kinds of crops were produced, sold off the farm, and 
nothing returned. 

In any kind of stock production a liberal use of pasture crops 
makes for cheap gains. The liberal use of the leguminous crops 
in pork, mutton, beef, and milk production, taking one year 
with another, cheapens production. Many farmers are begin- 
ning to realize that it is expensive to import feeds. It is for 
this reason that farmers are studying and planning how they 
may grow crops, so that they will have a well-balanced feed, and 
at the same time not deplete the soil. The solution of this 
problem is a proper balance of grain crops to furnish the carbo- 
hydrate material, and the growing of clovers, alfalfa, soybeans, 

^Burkett : Feeding Farm Animals. 



422 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

and cowpeas, which furnish the protein of the feed. The latter 
crops tend to balance the grain ration, and at the same time 
restore nitrogen to the soil. Read the chapters on the legumi- 
nous crops, pasture grasses, the chapter on swine production, and 
the discussion in connection with the rotation of crops. 

In Stock Farming a Great Deal of Feed is Utilized that would 
be almost wholly Wasted if Grain Farming were Practiced. — 
The grass that grows along streams, fences, and roadways would 
be lost if not consumed by grazing animals. Much land that 
cannot be tilled profitably is used as grazing land. Corn fields 
where the ears have been gathered, furnish a great deal of rough- 
ness for a month or more, to cattle, sheep, and horses. Straw 
stacks and the grasses and weeds in stubble fields will produce 
a fine product. The screenings at threshing time furnish ex- 
cellent feed for the poultry for several weeks. A small flock of 
sheep are kept on many farms simply as plant scavengers. The 
large quantity of weeds they consume are transformed into wool 
and mutton. Goats, in many sections, help greatly in renovat- 
ing pastures of sprouts and weeds. There are very few sprouts 
goats will not eat. Their services in renovating pastures may 
often be worth from 50 cents to $1 per acre. Turkeys roam 
over pastures and fields, eating grasshoppers and other insects. 
The dairy, the garden, the orchard, the field, and the roadside 
provide feeds which, if utilized, may bring a fair income and 
change the farm operation from a losing one to a profitable one. 
The small odds and ends utilized by animals may mean the 
difference between success and failure, for to a considerable 
extent the profits thus secured are almost pure profits. (See 
Exercises 2 and 3.) 

Animals Manufacture Raw Materials into a Marketable 
Product. — As we have seen in the discussion of the preceding 
topic, animals transform many unsalable feeds into fine, salable 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 



423 



products. The animal is a manufacturer. Not only are the 
cheap feed stuffs thus utilized, but the corn, silage, hays, bran, 
cottonseed meal, and various other crops and their by-products 
are used by animals, and converted into salable products. The 
following facts in a general way indicate the manufacturing 
capacity of various farm animals : 



Animal 


Feed 


Amount of Product Pro- 
duced 


Approximate 
Value 


Dairy cow . . 


Corn silage 30 


lb.. 


25 lb. milk, test 4.0% 






alfalfa 10 lb 


, corn 


or one pound but- 


35 cents 




6 lb., bran 


2 lb.. 


terfat 






water 75 lb. 








Swine .... 


5-6 lb. corn 




One pound pork 


7I cents 


Sheep .... 


8-9 lb. corn 




One pound mutton 


7^ cents 


Steer .... 


lo-ii lb. corn 




One pound beef 


72 cents 



It should not be concluded from this table that one kind of 
animal produces meat more economically than others. The 
table is not recorded for that purpose. The table simply in- 
dicates that animals are manufacturers. When the fact is re- 
called that sheep consume feeds that hogs will not use, the con- 
clusion may be drawn that sheep are the most profitable of all 
the animals, under certain conditions. 

The raw products cannot always be shipped to market profit- 
ably. For illustration, the dairy cow utilized about 48 pounds 
of feed stuffs to manufacture one pound of butter. The raw 
materials have a low selling value per pound, but a pound of 
butter may sell for 35 cents per pound. The freight charges in 
transporting the raw materials would be extremely costly in 
proportion to the value of the product sent ; while the finished 
product can be shipped at a comparatively low cost. Animals 



424 



PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 



hold an important relation to permanent agriculture because 
they are manufacturers. 

Stock Farming Gives More Constant Employment. — It tends 
to distribute labor. In grain farming all the labor is demanded 
in a short period. Stock farming causes a diversity of crops to 
be grown, and this of itself causes a more even distribution of 




Fig. 187. 



A Longhorn bull in poor condition. Bankers do not give loans on scrub 
cattle. 



labor, and stock always needs attention. As was indicated in 
the previous chapter, all the labor in connection with timothy 
hay comes in about one month, or one-twelfth of the entire year 
Generally speaking, men get paid according to the time they 
work ; one-twelfth time, one-twelfth pay. Read the chapter on 
farm labor. Our agriculture will not be nearly so permanent 
until the labor on the farm becomes more constant. Stock farm- 
ing tends to give constant employment. 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 



425 



Stock Farming will often Increase the Profits. — This is espe- 
cially true where young stock, stock of the proper conformation, 
quality, and disposition, are used, and where the farmer knows 
how to secure economic gains from them. Bankers seldom turn 
down a loan on young growing stock, especially if it is of the 
right kind. See the contrast in Figs. 187 and 188. 

The Leading Nations in their Periods of Greatest Prosperity 




Fig. 



?. — A Shorthorn bull in good condition, 
cattle. 



Bankers do not refuse loans on such 



have been P>roducers of Animals. — The nations which are the 
leading and most progressive have been and are consumers of 
large quantities of meat and animal products. They likewise 
are consumers of vegetable products. Those nations which 
have a low state of civilization consume either meats alone or 
vegetable products alone. The barbarian uses either an entire 
meat diet, or an entire grain diet. The nations that consume 
either exclusively are usually in a low state of civilization. Wc 



426 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

need to refer only to China and Russia to illustrate this point. 
The Romans, Greeks, and Hebrews consumed meat to a con- 
siderable extent. From the first two races we received much 
in the way of laws and literature ; from the Hebrews we re- 
ceived the Old and the New Testament, and Christianity. The 
Teutonic race, comprising the peoples of England, Germany, 
and America, contributed the democratic system of government, 
— all are and were liberal meat eaters. 

Even the states of the United States that are the most pro- 
gressive, as shown by their roads, schools, farm implements, 
and stock, are greater producers of animals than are those 
states more backward along these Hues. On this point in con- 
nection with dairying, Professor Eckles states in Dairy Cattle 
and Milk Production, " If a list were prepared of our own states, 
selecting those where the average soil fertility is best conserved, 
the most intelligence found among the people, it would be a 
list of the leading dairy states." The American people are 
consumers of greater quantities of animal products per capita 
than are the peoples of any other nation. And where may a 
superior people, both physically and mentally, be found ? Well- 
developed men and women, physically and mentally, are neces- 
sary for a permanent agriculture. 

Animal Husbandry Tends toward a More Progressive Agri- 
culture and More Intelligent Farming. — One of the simplest 
forms of agriculture was that practiced by the wandering shep- 
herds described in the Bible. The shepherds drove their flocks 
to new pastures. Scarcely any skill was required. The cow- 
boys of the West in pioneer days needed Httle intelligence and, 
in a way, exemplify simple agriculture. Tilling a one-kind crop 
from year to year requires greater intelligence, because the use 
of tools and implements makes it a Httle more complex. Grow- 
ing two kinds of crops adds complexity to the operation, because 



ANIMAL HUSBANDRY 427 

the methods of soil preparation, seeding, cultivating, harvesting, 
and kinds of tools used vary somewhat with the two crops grown. 
Many farmers in the " corn belt " know how to grow corn, but do 
not understand how to grow alfalfa. A third kind of farming 
that requires still more skill and intelligence is a system of grain 
farming, where a rotation of crops is practiced and five or six 
different crops are raised. Rotating crops, so that the soil 
fertility will be maintained, so that insects of various crops are 
combated, so that labor is well distributed, and seUing each 
crop at such a season that the most is realized, is a difficult 
system of farming indeed. But a fourth system of farming 
that is still more complex is one in which all the good points of 
the third system prevail, and in addition several different kinds 
of animals are produced. In animal husbandry farming, hous- 
ing, feeding, care, and management, combating disease and 
enemies, selecting the types and kinds of animals that will prove 
profitable, — all of these points in connection with every kind of 
animal handled add greatly to the complexity of the farm 
operations. Animal production requires additional skill for its 
successful operation. 

Animal husbandry causes men to become more sympathetic. 
The man who hammers steel from day to day deals with an 
inanimate thing. The producer of plants notices the response 
of the soil and the plant to his kind treatment. But the man 
who handles sheep, horses, cattle, — the shepherd, the horse- 
man, the cattleman, — note the instinctive reaction of the 
animal kindly treated, until the mental attitude of both animal 
and man are greatly improved. The dairyman has long since 
learned that kind treatment brings economic returns. The 
shepherd well knows that his voice is known by every sheep. 
The horseman fully realizes that if he commands his horse 
intelligently, the horse will respond in hke manner. This in- 



428 PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE 

telligent, harmonious, responsive spirit of soul, heart, and head 
of animal and man are prerequisites to permanent successful 
agriculture. 

Summary. — Animal husbandry farming helps in maintaining 
the fertiHty of the soil, tends to a better system of crop rotation, 
utilizes feeds that otherwise would be partially wasted, manu- 
factures raw materials into a marketable product, gives more 
constant employment, and often increases profits. The leading 
nations have been and are producers and consumers of meat 
and meat products, and animal husbandry promotes a pro- 
gressive and intelligent agriculture. Animal husbandry farming 
sustains important relations to the permanency of our American 
agriculture. And it behooves the schools, the farmers, and the 
consumers to study the close relation of animal husbandry to 
permanent agriculture, in order that here as elsewhere the old 
saying that " education is the safeguard of our nation " may be 
fully realized. 

LABORATORY EXERCISES 

1. Recommendations for Handling Unresponsive Soils. — Are there any 
farms in your locality that do not readily respond to the husbandman ? If 
there are, will you kindly write in three paragraphs three reasons why the 
soil does not respond readily ? Make three recommendations you would 
suggest to make the soil more responsive. These three recommendations 
should be written in choice English and in three well-formed paragraphs. 

2. The Study of Waste Farm Products. —Name ten products that would 
be waste products that may be utilized either by swine, beef cattle, sheep, 
or poultry. 

3. Suggestions on the Utilization of Some Waste Products. — Do you 
know of any field, garden, orchard, or pasture in which insects, grass, weeds, 
sprouts, or other plants are found which might be well utilized by some farm 
animal? What suggestions have you to offer regarding their utilization? 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

I. Field Crops 

Livingston: Field Crop Production. Macmillan. 

Lyon and Montgomery : Examining and Grading Grains. Ginn. 

Wilson and Warburton : Field Crops. Webb. 

II. Animal Husbandry 

Eckles and Warren : Dairy Farming. Macmillan. 
Eckles : Dairy Cattle and Milk Production. Macmillan. 
Harper: Animal Husbandry for Schools. Macmillan. 
Hogan : The Call of the Hen. American School of Poidtry, Mountain 
Grove, Mo. 

Standard of Perfection. American Poultry Association. 

Lewis : The Poultry Keeper. Lippincotts. 

Plumb : Types and Breeds of Farm Animals. Ginn. 

III. Soils 

Vivian : First Principles of Soil Fertility. Orange Judd. 
Whitson and Walster: Soils and Soil Fertility. Webb. 

IV. Horticulture 

Bailey: Nursery Book. Macmillan. 

Principles of Fruit Growing. Macmillan. 

Green : Vegetable Gardening. Webb. 

V. Farm Management 

Boss : Farm Management. Webb. 
Warren: Farm Management. Macmillan. 

VI. Laboratory Manual 

Gehrs and James : One Hundred Exercises in Agriculture. Macmillan. 

429 



INDEX 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 152 

Accounts on farms, 400-406 

Advanced Official Registry Requirements, 182 

Age, affecting economy of fattening 

cattle, 154 

sheep, 220 

swine, 202 
Alfalfa, 93-101 

composition of leaf and stem, 100 

essentials in alfalfa production, 96 

for forage, 98 

importance of, 93 

reasons for alfalfa failures, 95 

returns with alfalfa, 94, 98, 99 

soils adapted to alfalfa, 94 

uses of, 96-99 

when to cut alfalfa, 99 
Alsike clover, 81 

Animal Husbandry, advantages of, 200 
Apparatus, list and cost of, is to be found in 

the Preface 
Apples, 366 

Bordeaux mixture, 372 

borers, 372 

codling moth, 370 

lime sulphur spray, 372 

San Jose Scale, 371 

varieties named, 368 
Ash, 109 
Ayrshire cow, 183 

Babcock, Dr. S. M. 

Babcock Test, 198 

Babcock Tester, 198 

method of making Babcock Test, 198 

portrait, 198 
Bacon hogs, 205 

Bacteria, 75, 88, 96, 188, 267, 296, 301 
Barnyard manure. See Manures 
Beans, 345, 356 
Beef cattle, 1 44-1 61 

beef breeds, 148 

characteristics of a beef type, 145 
Belgian horse, 131 



Berkshire hogs, 206 
Biting insects, 369 
Blue grass, 102 

composition, 104, 108 

nutritive ratio, 104, 108 

values as a fattening feed, 105 

values as a milk-producing feed, 102 
Bog spavin, 122 
Bone spavin, 1 2 2 
Bookkeeping on the farm, discussion of, 407- 

416 
Bordeaux mixture, 372 

formula for, 372 

when to use, 370 
Borers, on apple trees, 372 
Bot fly, 123 
Bots, 123 
Bran 

composition, 108 

digestible nutrients, 108 
Brown rot, 374 
Budding, 338 
Butter, discussion of, 189 

churning, temperature of, 189 

composition of, 189 

Cabbage, 356 

Call of the Hen, 251 

Cambium layer, 339 

Capillarity in soils, 265, 270, 277 

Capiied elbow, 122 

Carbohydrates, no 

Cattle. See Beef cattle. 

Cheese, 190 

Cherries, 376 

Chickens, 227-262 

breeds of, 2 29 

classes of, 229 

diseases of, 255 

egg capacity of hens, 251 

egg production, 244 

housing of poultry, 237 

interior fixtures of houses, 241 

roup, 256 



431 



432 



INDEX 



Chickens — Continued 

scaly leg, 256 

selecting hens that will lay, 251 

value of products, 245 
Chinch bug, 18 
Clovers, 72-81 

advantages in growing, 74 

alsike clover, 81 

composition of the legumes, 75 

crimson clover, 81 

history of red clover, 72 

making clover hay, when to make, 
76 

white clover, 80, 102 
Clydesdale horse, 129 
Codling moth, 370 
Colorado beetle, 351 
Commercial fertilizers. See Fertilizers 
Cooperation, 388 
Corn, 24-58 

corn as a food producer, 29 

corn plant — a grass, 29 

corn states, 29 

cost to produce corn, 30 

cultivation of corn, 42 

description of an ear of corn, 31 

fertility removed by corn, 30 

prolificacy of corn, 38 

reasons for seed corn selection, 36 

relation of rotation of crops to corn pro- 
duction, so 

selecting seed corn, 34 

storing seed corn, 35 

the silo. See Silage, 45 
Cost 

of corn production, 30 

of feeds, 194 

of milk production, 185 

of oat production, 62 

of wheat production, 7 
Cotswold sheep, 218 
Cowpeas, 88-92 

cowpeas as forage, 91 

digestible nutrients, 108 

time required for maturity, 90 

uses of, 90 

varieties, 90 
Cruickshank, Amos, 148 
Curb, 122 

Cuts of beef steer, 146 
Cuttings, 334 

leaf, 337 



Cuttings — Continued 
stem, 335 
technique of, 336 

Dairy products, 187 

butter, 189 

cheese, 190 

skim milk, 188 
Dairying, 162-198. See Milk 

advantages of dairying, 163 

essentials of a good dairy cow, 165 

records of dairy cows, 176, 178, 183, 184, 187 
Delaine Merinos, 218 
Denitrification, 295 
Digestible composition of feeds, 108 
Drainage, 278 

surface, 278 

tile, 279 

underground, 278 
Duroc Jersey swine, 208 

Earth mulch, 280 

Eckles, C. H., quoted, 150 

Efficiency of the dairy cow, 164 

Egg score card, 260 

Eggs as food, 24s 

Eggs, weight per dozen, 261 

Elements in the soil, 284 

Elements needed for plant growth, 284 

Farm bookkeeping, 400-406 

farm expenditures, 404 

farm inventory, 401 

form of keeping books, 401 

reasons "for keeping books, 400 

what books to keep, 400 
Farm labor, 407-417 

distribution of labor with different crops, 
410 

economy of farm labor, 407 

examples of constant labor, 413 

unequal distribution of labor, 407 
Farms, factors in its choice, 385 

churches, 391 

farm improvements, 386 

healthfulness, 389 

markets, 387 

roads, 387 

schools, 390 

social gatherings, 391 
Feeding, 1 07-1 13 

cattle, 154 

horses, 136 



INDEX 



433 



Feeding — Continued 

sheep, 223 

standards of, 1 1 1 

swine, 202, 203 
Feeds. See Rations 

balancing rations, 112 

composition of, 108 

digestibility of, loS 

effect of time of harvesting on composi- 
tion, so, 77, 99 

fertility recovered in manure, 420 

functions of, no 

nutritive ratio, 112 
Fertilizers, 318-327 

amount used in United States, 319 

need of fertilizers, 318 

kind of fertilizers, 320 

kind to use, 324 

nitrogenous, 320 

phosphatic, 320 

potassium, 321 

price of fertilizers, and how to determine 
it, 323 

value of fertilizers, 322 
Fistulae, 121 

Flocculation of soils, 273 
Flowers, parts, etc., 329 
Food requirements of plants, 284 

elements needed, 284 

function of each, 2S7 

sources of these elements, 285 
Forests, 381. See Wood lot 
Fowls. See Chickens 
Fruit growing. See Orchard fruits 

Galloway, 153 
Gardening, 345-350 

elements of success, 346 

garden for the entire year, 347 

hotbeds, 346 

plan of garden, 349 

value of vegetables, 345 
Grafting, 33S 

bud grafting, 338 

cleft grafting, 341 

reasons for, 338 

wliip grafting, 340 
Grafting wax, formula for, 342 
Grain farming removes fertiUty, 288 
Grapes, 376 

enemies of, 376 

varieties of grapes, 376 
2 F 



Green manure crops, 305 
Guernsey cow, 176 

Hampsliire hogs, 209 
Hampsliire sheep, 218 
Hardwood cuttings, 334 
Harper, M. W., quoted, 120 
Hereford cattle, 153 
Hessian fly, 17 
Hogan Test, 251 
Hogs, 199. Sec Swine 
Holstein-Friesian cow, 178 
Horse, 1 14-143 

age of a horse, how to tell it, 117 

blemishes of horses, 1 20 

coach horses, 131 

draft breeds, 124 

feeding horses, 136 

light horses, 133 
Hotbeds, 348 

Insecticides, 372, 375 
Insects, 351, 369 

Jersey cattle, 173 
Judging score cards 

beef cattle, 160 

corn, 55 

dairy cattle, 197 

eggs, 260 

for a farm, 393 

fruit, 378 

horses, 140, 142 

oats, 70 

poultry, 258 

sheep, 225 

swine, 213 

Kentucky blue grass 

composition, 104, 108 

nutritive ratio, 108 

value as a fattening feed, 104 

value as a milk producer, 105 
Kerosene emulsion spray, 372 
Kind of forest trees, 382 
Kleinheintz, Frank, 221 

Labor on farms, 407-417 

horse labor, 413 

man labor, 408 
Laboratory equipment. See Preface 
Lambs, economic fatteners, 220 



434 



INDEX 



Lard type of swine, 205 
Layering, 333 
Leaf curl, 374 
Legume crops 

alfalfa, 93 

alsike, 81 

cowpeas, 80 

crimson clover, 81 

red clover, 70 

soybeans, 82 

white clover, 80 
Legume crops improve the soil, 74, 300 
Leicester sheep, 218 
Lettuce, 349 
Level cultivation, 42-43 
Lewis, Harry R., quoted, 250 
Lime 

amount to apply, 299 

how to tell the need of, 299 
Lime-sulphur spray, preparation of, 372 
Live stock 

importance in maintaining soil fertility, 418 

numbers of different kinds of animals in 
U. S., 114 

value of different kinds, 114 

Manures, 307-317 

amount produced by farm animals, 310 ' 
care of manures, 314 
composition of farm manures, 309 
composition of liquid manures, 312 
composition of solid parts of manures, 312 
factors affecting value of manures, 307 
losses of manures, 312 
manure produced per year by farm ani- 
mals, 310 
relative value of liquid and solid manure, 

rich feeds produce rich manure, 308 

value of manure per ton, 313 
Mapping the farm, 395 
Markets, 387 

Meat scraps, composition of, 108 
Merino sheep, 217 
Milk 

average production, 162 

Babcock Test of, 198 

composition of, 188 

digestible nutrients in, 108 

milk from different breeds, 175 

records, 176, 178, 182, 183, 184 
Mulches, 280 



Mules, market classes of, 133 
Mutton sheep, 217 

Neighbors, 3S9 

Nitrate of soda, 320 

Nitrification, 295 

Nitrogen 

amount in air, 285 

amount in soils, 291 

amount stored in plants, 288 

fixation of nitrogen by legumes, 74 

losses of nitrogen in soils, — Leaching, 295 

Nitrogenous fertilizers, 320 

Oats, 59-71 

amount of seed to sow, 63 

characteristics of a good oat, 64 

composition of, 67 

condition for oat production, 61 

cost of acreage production, 62 

enemies of, 68 

nutritive ratio of, 67 

oatmeal, 67 

oat states, 60 

preparation of seed bed, 63 

uses of oats, 67 

value of oat straw, 67 
O'Kane, quoted, 369 
Orchard fruits, 361-364 

distance apart trees should be set, 363 

importance of orchards, 360 

orchard sites, 362 

pruning trees, 364 

soils adaptable for fruit production, 361 
Oxford Down sheep, 218 

Paris Green, 352 
Parts of a flower, 329 
Pasture grasses, 102-106 

alsike clover, 81, 103 

blue grass, 102 

digestible composition, 104, 108 

management of pastures, 104 

mixture of plants for pasture and advan- 
tages, 103 

nutritive ratio of pasture grasses, 104 

red top, 104 

white clover, 80, 102, 108 
Patterson, C. T., quoted, 250 
Peaches, 373 

enemies of, 374 

soil and culture, 373 

varieties of, 374 



INDEX 



435 



Peas as food, 345 
Percheron horse, 124 
Phosphate fertiUzers, 320 
Plant foods, 284-290 

amounts added by fertilizers, 285, 320-323 

amount of in different soils, 291 

amount of in manures, 309 

fourteen elements in plants, 284 

ten elements essential to plant growth, 284 
Poland China hogs, 207 
Poll evil, 1 20 
Potassium fertilizers, 321 
Potatoes, discussion of, 350 

scab, 352 

varieties of, 352 
Poultry, 227-262 

feeds for, 247 

Hogan Test, 251 

kinds, 229 

rations for, 248 

varieties, 229 
Preserving of feeds, methods of 

cold storing, 47 

drying, 47 

ensiling, 47 

salting, 47 
Prices of feeds. See Dairying 
Protein, 109, 204 

Quarter cracks, 122 

Ration for 

cattle, 194 

horses, 136 

poultry, 248 

sheep, 223 

swine, 205 
Red clover, 72 
Red top, 103 

Registry requirements, 182 
Replanning of farms, 394 
Requirements for animals, in 
Ring bones, 122 
Roads, 387 
Root grafting, 340 
Rotation of crops 

efifect of rotations on yields, 293, 304 

system suggested, 303 
Rusts, 68 

San Jose Scale, 373 

Scaly leg, 256 

Score card. See Judging 



Scratches, 122 
Seed 

germination tests, 37, 331 

multiplication of seeds, 329 
Seed germination 

need for air, 332 

need for proper amount of moisture, 331 

preparatory' treatment to, 332 

proper temperature, 331 
Sheep, 215-226 

breeds of sheep, 217 

importance of sheep, 216 

relation of age of lambs to fattening, 220 

sheep states, 217 

shelter for sheep, 219 

some facts about sheep, 219 

types of, 217 

wild sheep, 215 
Shorthorn cattle, 148 
Shropshire sheep, 21S 
Silage 

amount of silage per cow, 47 

composition of, 108 

feeding value, 108 

size of silo, 47 

when to cut corn for the silo, 50 
Softwood cuttings, 334 
Soil bacteria. See Bacteria 
Soil water. See Water 
Soils, 263-325 

acidity in soils, 299 

alkalinity in soils, 300 

amount of plant food in soils, 284 

capillarity in soils, 277 

chemical analysis of soils, 293 

composition of soils, 285 

losses of humus, 295 

low yields of, 289 

percolation in soils, 266 

porosity in soils, 267 

puddUng of soils, 271 

size of particles, 263 

washing of soils, 293 

water-holding capacity of, 265 
Southdown sheep, 218 
Soybeans, 82-87 

advantages of, 82 

composition of, 86 

culture of, 84 

time for harvesting, 86 

uses of, 86 

varieties of, 84 



436 



INDEX 



Splints, 121 

Standard of Perfection, 227, 228, 232, 257 

Sweeney, 121 

Swine, igg-214 

advantages of, 200 

all year hog pasture, 203 

bacon type, 205 

breeds of swine, 206 

diseases of swine, 2og 

effect of age on economic fattening, 202 

feeding swine, 205 

hog cholera, 210 

rations for swine, 205 

types of, 205 

Tankage, 108 
Thoroughpin, 122 
Tile drains, 279 
Tomatoes, 353 

culture of, 353 

food value, 345 

origin, 353 

varieties, 354 

Underdrainage, 279 
Unsoundness of horses, 120 

Vegetables, 345-359 

beans, 356 

cabbage, 356 

garden peas, 355 

lettuce, 349 

potatoes, 350 

radishes, 354 

tomatoes, 353 
Vivian, quoted, 276 

Warren, G. F., quoted, 267 

Water in animals, 109 

amount found in animal bodies, 109 
function of water in animal bodies, no 



Water in plants, 107, 345 

amount in plants, 107 

amount needed by plants, 275 

function of water in plant building, 276 
Water in soils, 275-283 

capillary, 277 

free, 277 

hygroscopic, 277 
Weeds, control of, 303 
Wheat, 1-23 

acreage production, 2 

cost of acreage production, 7 

cost of bushel production, 8 

cultivating wheat, 14 

depth of plowing for, 11 

districts of, 3 

drilling, 12 

enemies, 16 

fertility removed, 7 

harvesting, 15 

history, 2 

low yields, 5 

score card for, 22 

seed-bed preparation, 10 

seeding methods, 12 

seeding rate of, 12 

uses of wheat, 15 
White clover, 80, 102 
Whitson, quoted, 272 
Wind puffs, 123 
Wood lot, 381 

increasing need of, 381 

location of, 381 

varieties of trees for, 382 

Young animals more economical feeders 
cattle, 154 
sheep, 220 
swine, 202 



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One Hundred Exercises in Agriculture 

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